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COE^RICHT DEPOStr. 



Productive Farming 



BY 

KARY CADMUS DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell Univ.) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABOBS 
COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, NEW JERSEY 
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS) ; INSTRUCTOR IN AGRICULTURE, UNI- 
VERSITY OF VIRGINIA SUMMER SCHOOL; PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE, 
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY; PRINCIPAL, DUNN COUNTY (WIS.) 
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE; DEAN, STATE SCHOOL OF AGRICUL- 
TURE, CANTON, N. Y.; CONDUCTOR MANY SUMMER TRAINING 
SCHOOLS; INSTRUCTOR IN FARMERS* INSTITUTES 



FIFTH EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED 




PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT, 1911 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT, 1912 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT, 1917 
BY J. D. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT, 1920 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT, 1922 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 

AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA, D. B. A. 



SEP -^ .:?22 



PREFACE 

This book is intended to suit the needs of rural schools 
of all kinds, and graded village and city schools chiefly below 
high-school rank. It is believed that many high-schools 
wanting a less advanced course in agriculture than is offered 
in more difficult books will find this text helpful. It is 
hoped that farmers and others pursuing a short course, a 
reading-circle course, a correspondence course, or a home- 
reading course will find this volame of value. Such persons 
should read the exercises but probably omit the trial of some 
of them. 

In the preparation of this book the writer has been aided 
very materially by a number of people. The ever-present 
memory of the boys and girls with whom the writer has 
associated as a schoolmate or as teacher in the rural schools 
and graded schools has been an inspiration and help in pre- 
paring every lesson to be studied by other such boys and 
girls. The many teachers of both rural and graded schools 
who have criticized the lessons as they have been presented 
by the writer have spurred him on to do his best in the mak- 
ing of this book. It is to such teachers and such boys and 
girls that this book should be dedicated, for they have been 
in the writer's mind every moment of the time. 

Special acknowledgment is due to a number of persons 
who have helped in the preparation of the whole book or of 
special chapters. Professor Dick J. Crosby, Specialist in 
Agricultural Education of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, has read the first manuscript of the whole 
book and parts of the second draft. His suggestions and 
help have been so valuable that his name should go on the 
title page if he would allow it. He has read the proofs, and 



iv PREFACE 

through him many photographs have been supplied by the 
Department of Agriculture. Cuts made from those photo- 
graphs are marked "A. E." of agricultural education. 

In like manner, Frederick C. Minkler, Professor of Ani- 
mal Husbandry of the New Jersey College of Agriculture, 
has read the manuscript and proofs of several chapters 
on Animal Production, Animal Breeding, Horses, Cattle, 
Sheep, and Swine. Other Professors of the same institution 
have read the manuscript and proofs of a number of other 
chapters: Dr. Jacob G. Lipman, Director of the Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, the five chapters on Soils and 
their Improvement; Professor Harry R. Lewis, Head of the 
Poultry and Dairy Departments, the chapters on Poultry 
Management and Cattle Products; Dr. John B. Smith, 
State Entomologist, the chapters on Insects and Bee-keeping; 
Professor Maurice A. Blake, Head of the Horticulture 
Department, the chapter on Fruit Production; Dr. Byron 
D. Halsted, Botanist and Plant Pathologist, the first chapter 
and the chapter on Plant Diseases and Spraying; Walter 
W. Shute, Instructor in Forage Crops, the chapters on Field 
Crops and on Alfalfa; Arthur J. Farley, of the Horticulture 
Department, the Sections on Spraying and the Tables of 
Insecticides and Fungicides; Dr. Myron T. Scudder, Head- 
master of the Rutgers Preparatory School and Professor 
of the Science of Teaching in Rutgers College, has read 
manuscripts and proofs of the Introduction and the chapter 
on The Business of Farming. Mrs. Kary C. Davis has read 
and criticized the whole manuscript and corrected the proofs. 
She has made nearly all of the pen-and-ink drawings in the 
book. To all of these and others, including many farmers 
and teachers whose names do not appear, the author is 
greatly indebted for material aid and encouragement. 

Photographs besides those already mentioned have been 
kindly furnished by the Agronomist and the Dairy Division 
of the United States Department of Agriculture. These 



PREFACE V 

are marked under illustrations : "An. I." for Animal 
Industry, and "PI. I." for Plant Industry. Credits are 
given with the name of the station to those furnished by 
State Experiment Stations: "Kans.," "W. Va.," "Wis.," 
"N. J./' "Minn.," "Maine," "Cornell." Professors Harry 
R. Lewis and Maurice A. Blake kindly supplied a number 
of photographs; animal photographs were also given by F. 
Warren Sumner, of Elizabeth, N. J., the White Wyandotte 
Hen; Thos. Wyckoff, Orchard Lake, Mich., the Rambouillet 
Ram; Cornell Cow?i/ryman, the Dorsets;Chas. Leet, Mantua, 
Ohio, Southdown Ewe; R. C. Parsons, Grand Ledge, Mich., 
Oxford Ram; A. T. Gamber, Wakeman, O., American Merino. 
Cuts have been loaned by the author and the J. B. Lippin- 
cott Co. from John B. Smith's "Insect Friends and Ene- 
mies," and "Economic Entomology." 

The author will be glad to receive suggestions and cor- 
rections from teachers and others regarding any mistakes 
in the book. 



The chapter on Cotton was added in the second edition. 
The third edition included a number of changes in the Appen- 
dix tables to bring the matter up to date. Suggestions to 
Teachers for additional exercises and projects were added to 
the Appendix. Changes and many additions were made 
through the text in both the third and fourth editions. 
Much of the new Part V was added in the fourth edition. 
The present Chapters XVI and XXXI were added. A 
Southern Edition was issued in 1919. In the fifth edition 
1922, the Swine Chapter (XXVI) was rewritten, enlarged 
and adapted tohome project methods ;Chapters on Sheep, and 
Poultry were likewise much improved by the addition of 
matter on projects, debates, contests and fresh references. 



4 

CONTENTS 

Introduction. — The Teaching of Agriculture 

PART I.— PLANT PRODUCTION 

I. Structure and Physiology of Plants 8 

II. Plant Improvement — C4oodi Seed 22 

III. Propagation of Plants Without Seeds 35 

IV. How Soils are Formed 44 

V. Kinds of Soils — Their Characteristics 52 

VI. Soil Moisture 60 

VII. Land Drainage 67 

VJII. Soil Improvement 71 

IX. Systems of Cropping 88 

X. Farm Crops 07 

XI. Alfalfa Ill 

XII. Cotton Production 117 

XIII. Corn 133 

XIV. Small Grains 154 

XV. Potatoes 162 

XVI. Tobacco for Market 175 

XVII. The Principles of Forestry 178 

XVIII. GARDENINe 191 

XIX. Fruit Production 206 

XX. Insects 220 

XXI. Diseases of Plants — Spraying 246 

PART II.— ANIMAL PRODUCTION 

XXII. Improv-ement of Animals 259 

XXIII. Horses 262 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

XXIV. Cattle 279 

XXV. Sheep 293 

XXVI. Swine 300 

XXVII. Poultry Management 305 

XXVIII. Bee-keeping 321 

XXIX. Feeds and Feeding 327 

PART III.— ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
XXX. Cattle Products 344 

PART IV.— FARM MANAGEMENT 
XXXI. The Business of Farming 360 

FARM MECHANICS 

XXXII. Road Construction and Maintenance 371 

XXXIII. Work with Rope 376 

XXXIV. Repair of Farm Equipment — ^Handy Devices 385 

XXXV. Power on the Farm 391 

PART V .—APPENDIX— REFERENCE TABLES 

I. Reference Books . i 

II. List of Experiment Stations iii 

III. Insecticides and Fungicides v 

IV. Quantity of Seed per Acre and Legal Weights, ix 
V. Sample Pedigree of Pure Bred Cattle x 

VI. Rules xi 

VII. Fertilizer Formulas xii 

VIII. Average Digestibility of Feeds and Their Fer- 
tility XV 

IX. Feeding Standards xvi 

X. Average Composition of Farm Manures xvii 

XI. Distances Apart for Planting Fruit xvii 

XII. Usual Distances Apart for Planting Vegetables xviii 
XIII. Suggestions to Teachers for Additional Exer- 
cises AND Projects xix 

Index xxix 



Productive Farming 



INTRODUCTION 
THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 

The demand for the teaching of agriculture in the public 
schools is growing stronger all the time. In many States 
of the Union and several provinces of Canada the subject 
has been introduced into schools very generally. Not only 
has the subject been taken up in the high-schools, but also 
in special schools started for the avowed purpose of teaching 
agriculture, manual training, and domestic economy. 

This is in response to the verj^ general demand for more 
practical instruction. The feeling exists that the schools 
have been doing work too remote from real life; and that 
where the work has touched the life at all, it has been the 
city side or the commercial side rather than the productive 
side and the industrial side of life. Such training tends to 
lead all, or nearly all, young people away from rather than 
toward the industrial and productive callings. The census 
reports indicate that this tendency has aided in building 
up the cities and actually decreasing the population in many 
of the rural districts. 

The interest in rural life should be kept up by the train- 
ing received in country schools, and in all schools. A proper 
conception of the opportunities afforded in the country 
should be in the minds of all young people — whether they 
live in cities or in the country. The productive wealth o! 
the nation is from the country, not from the city. This 
wealth should be used to improve rural life rather than city 

1 



« PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

life. All young people should learn of the opportunities for 
health, independence, happiness, and wealth afforded by 
the country. Those living in the country often fail to realize 
their blessings. They rush in dangerous numbers to the 
cities, until every legitimate city occupation is overcrowded. 
Hosts of them are left to seek livelihoods by devices and 
means that are at least not elevating. 

The comforts and conveniences enjoyed b^' a few in the 
cities are very alluring to the young ambitious mind. Why 
not show that things better than these are in the country — 
and that many of these same comforts may be enjoyed by 
rural communities. 

Suggestions to Teachers. — The teaching of agriculture 
is most easily done by taking up those subjects nearest at 
hand. Teach the lines of agriculture that will be most valu- 
able in your community. If in a gardening section the special 
garden crops will be most interesting; in a dairy section 
study dairy breeds, the testing of milk, the dairy products; 
in the corn belt the class will delight in the study of corn 
improvement, the testing of seed corn, and the judging of 
corn by score cards. 

There are certain chapters in this book which are funda- 
mental and cannot be omitted. For example, Chapter I is 
necessary to the proper understanding of other plant studies. 
However, there are certain other chapters which may be 
taken independently at a time of year which suits the sub- 
ject. The chapter on Forage Crops and perhaps others may 
well be used as reading lessons and then studied more in 
detail later. 

How to Begin. — Enter heartily into the new subject 
without hesitation. Teach the newest things in agriculture. 
It will be easier for you to teach these than to teach the 
topics more familiar to the class. This is particularly so 
if the pupils are from farms. The field is so broad no one 
can know it all. Teach the facts which you know best and 



THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 8 

which are newest to the class: the making of spray mix- 
tures; the prevention of certain plant diseases; the raising 
and use of special crops which should be grown, as, perhaps, 
alfalfa, or certain clovers; the green-soiling methods of 
feeding; use of catch crops and cover crops; the saving of 
Boil moisture. The best United States Farmers' Bulletins will 
help you along these newer lines and will give you new points 
on the old themes. Why? It is because the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and fifty or more agricultural experiment 
stations are finding out new things in agriculture all the time. 

Farmers' Bulletins. — References to United States Farm- 
ers' Bulletins are given at the close of the chapters. A com- 
plete list of Farmers' Bulletins can be had by writing to the 
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D, C. Besides those 
listed at the close of the chapters, there are others that will 
be helpful in schools. Write for them. They are free to 
schools. 

Make pasteboard holders for the Bulletins. Put labels 
on these so that a simple classification will be possible. Label 
them similar to the chapters in this book. 

How to Use the Bulletins. — Teachers will find the United 
States Farmers' Bulletins very useful. Let us illustrate. No. 
617, "School Lessons on Corn," is full of suggestions for 
teachers and others. It tells what to do and how to do it. 
The pictures are simple and plain. Most of the Bulletins 
are well illustrated and plainly written. Each of these 
Bulletins has a special use in teaching some definite subject. 
Have advanced pupils use the Bulletins as extra work, or 
as supplementary reading. 

Time Saved. — If the objection is raised that there is no 
room in the schedule — no time — for a new subject because 
there are already too many subjects to teach, answer by 
Baying there is always room for a subject that will hold the 
pupils' interest. Such subjects, if practical, are the best in 
the school course. 



4 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Arranging the Schedule. — A "sliding schedule" may be 
made to admit agriculture without reducing the recitation 
time for other subjects, thus: First plan — On Mondays let 
agriculture take the place of the first morning recitation 
period; on Tuesdays, the second period; on Wednesdays, 
the third period, and so on through the week. Another plan 
would be to have agriculture three times a week, alternating 
with some three other subjects, — each of them being given 
four times a week. Another time-saving plan to use in the 
smaller rural schools is to combine several of the upper 
classes into one class when teaching a new subject like 
agriculture. 

Correlation. — It is, indeed, a very good plan to correlate 
the work in agriculture with other subjects in school. The 
other subjects ^\all be made far more interesting to most of 
the pupils if agriculture is made the center of interest around 
which to group these other subjects. 

School English is made more interesting by having pupils 
read and wTite and speak on those themes which are close 
to human life. Language comes forth spontaneously when 
the pupils have something real to tell or to write about. New 
words in this book or in the Bulletins should be woven into 
the spelling and language work. 

A few arithmetical problems have been suggested in this 
book. These will serve to show that much of the arithmetic 
work of the school can be founded on agriculture or enriched 
by it. 

One of the best ways to study local geography is to study 
the soils of the neighborhood (Fig. 1). Trips may be taken 
by the class to near-by places where examples of erosion are 
sho^^^l, or the action of ancient glaciers, or the cropping 
out of ledges of sedimentary rocks. Study soil-depths, soil- 
textures, and soil improvement. Take samples of soils and 
subsoils. The study of the ways in which soils are being 
formed all about the neighborhood is real geography. 



THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 6 

All this should be done not solely for the sake of agricul- 
ture, but for the sake of more interest in other subjects when 
the agricultural matter is introduced. There is as much or 
more cultural value in the teaching of a practical subject as 
in teaching any other subject in the school course. 



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Fig. 1 . — Studying soils and potting plants. Graded school work in Virginia. 

Use the Exercises. — The practical exercises offered in this 
book are simple and can be performed by pupils themselves 
with a little guidance. Pupils will be willing to supply the 
necessary articles in most cases. The exercises add much to 
the interest and also to the value of the work. The work 
should be directly with things, handling them, reasoning 
from them. Use also the exercises given in United States 
Farmers' Bulletins 428, 586, 606, 609, 617. 

Suit the subject considered to the season so far as con- 
venient. Seed testing is a good exercise for early spring. 
School garden work will come later. Do not fail to provide 
window boxes. The pupils will do the work gladly, and in the 
spring season fill them with germinating seeds and growing 
plants. 

Teachers will find that agriculture will add a new interest 
to the whole school work. Exhibits of the school garden pro- 



6 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ducts may be made at the school in the fall. Prizes may be 
offered for the best products grown by the pupils in the home 
gardens. Money to buy prizes may be raised by charging 
an admission fee when the exhibit is made. If the exhibit 
is small, supplement it wit*h a suitable program. 

A Community Center. — The public affairs of the commu- 
nity should center about the school much of the time during 
the school year. 

The teacher may appoint committees to arrange the 
details of many events to be held at the school or at other 
near-by places in the name of the school. Hold corn exhibits 
in the fall or early winter and let students and others enter 
into corn-judging contests. Apple shows and vegetable 
shows may be held at separate times or in connection with 
the corn show. Poultry shows and dairy-product shows may 
be possible in some places. 

Premium lists should be issued to the pupils to take home, 
or they may be published in local papers. Award cards may 
be issued in lieu of premiums; but the merchants or neighbors 
may be called upon to contribute suitable articles to be used 
as prizes. Read Circular 99, U. S. Office of Experiment 
Stations, on " Farmers' Institutes for Young People." 

Boys' and Girls* Clubs. — The school should be the center 
for the organization of boys' corn clubs, or alfalfa clubs, or 
experimental clubs. Girls' clubs may be organized. They 
may follow nature study, or home gardening, or sewing, or 
basketry. Let the work of all these clubs be shown at the 
school on stated occasions. Read Farmers' Bulletin 562. 

Special school exercises of an appropriate nature should 
be given on arbor day, bird day, corn day, alfalfa day, and 
other special days. Always have the patrons of the school 
present on these occasions. Make the school building the 
attractive center for the people of the community. The 
newer lines of education will connect with the life of the com- 
munity at every point. 



THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 7 

Let school holidays and perhaps other days be filled with 

historical or agricultural or other pageants suitable to the 

season; have appropriate contests, school games, and good 

sports. Let there be recreational diversion for old and young. 

Appoint committees to cooperate in preparing for these 

occasions. 

Problems. — A few problems here will be suggestive and serve as 
sample problems to be placed on the board for pupils, from time to time. 

1 . Calculate the number of cabbages on an acre if they are set as 
close as shown in Appendix, Table XII, allowing for one-fourth loss. 

2. If cabbage worms destroy one-third of the above result, and the 
good heads bring 5 cents per head, what is the income for the acre? 

3. What would be the money value of the heads destroyed by 
cabbage worms? 

4. If a boy working at $1 per day can dust three acres of cabbage 
plants a day and keep off the worms, what is the profit for his day's 
work, if the material costs 90 cents? 

5. A man has 500 young apple trees attacked by woolly aphis 
insects, which he wishes to spray with kerosene emulsion to save the 
trees. If six gallons of the stock solution given in Appendix, Table III, 
are required (diluted with ten parts water), calculate the cost of mate- 
rials at present local prices for soap and kerosene. 

6. If the use of the sprayers is worth SI and the labor can be done 
by two men in a day and a quarter, what is the total cost of the 
spraying job? 

7. If a pair of bluebirds, in seeking food for their young in the nest, 
gather 120 worms from an old orchard each day, and each worm is 
thereby prevented from doing five cents' worth of damage to fruit, 
calculate the value of these birds in one nesting season of sixteen days. 

8. A sohtary wasp collected for her brood thirty-eight apple 
worms, and thus prevented each of these worms from maturing and 
laying 200 eggs, each of which would have caused an apple to be wormy. 
Consider the apples each worth two cents more when not affected with 
the worms. What is tha value to man of this solitary wasp ? 

9. A toad ate ten cutworms each night and thus saved a like 
number of tomato plants in my garden. What do you consider is a 
fair value of a tomato plant in cost and labor after it is set in the 
garden ? What is the value of this toad in three weeks ? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 5S6 and 606, on Collection 
and Preservation of Material for Study of Agriculture. 
2 



PART I. 
PLANT PRODUCTION 



CHAPTER I. 
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. 

The plants produced in field and garden form the food 
for man and nourishment for his live stock. Parts of plants 
are useful in the arts, as their oils for paint, their fibers for 
clothing, and their wood for buildings and fuel. 

The parts of farm plants are broadly considered to be 
made up of (1) root, (2) stem, (3) leaf, (4) flower, and (5) 
seed. 

Roots of plants are for three purposes: to hold the plant 
in place or prevent its blowing away; to take nourishment 
and moisture from the soil; and to serve as storage places 
for plant food. 

In growing into the soil the tip of the root forces its way 
among the soil particles. For this reason there is a root cap 
or covering over the tip to prevent injury. The growth 
takes place a little back of the tip cap, or covering, at the 
end of the fine roots. 

Root=hairs are formed on the fibrous roots a little distance 
from the tips. These are of fine growth, giving a plush or 
velvety surface to the root. The surface of all these fine 
hairs is very thin and is much greater in area than the sur- 
face of the roots. This allows moisture from the soil to pass 
through into the plant more easily. 

Exercise. — To Show Root-hairs. — Plant a few kernels 
ot corn in moist sand or soil in a bottle with wide mouth. 

8 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 9 



Wrap some black or dark paper around the body of the bottle 
to exclude the light. Roots seek darkness. Keep the soil 
moist and in a warm room for a week or so. The growth of 
the young roots will then have reached the inside surface 
of the glass. Notice their very fine, plush-like appearance 
(Figs. 2a and 6). Notice also which grow in length faster 
during the first two weeks, the roots or the tops of the young 
corn plants. 





Fig. 2a. — Corn grown in a bottle of soil. The dark paper around it excludes 
the light, so the roots may be studied by removing the paper. 

Fig. 26. — Corn grown as in Fig. 2a, showing fibrous roots and root-hairs for 
absorbing moisture. 

Exercise. — Root-hairs on Seedlings — Sprout some seeds 
of squash or beans in fo'ds of moist blotters between two 
plates until the roots are two or three inches long. Examine 
for root-hairs on these by holding them against a dark cloth 
or paper. 

Stems of plants have several ^uses: They support the 
leaves and hold them up to the air and light. They serve as 
storehouses for the saving of starch, sugar, and other forms 
of nourishment for the future use of the plant. They are 
the channels of circulation of plant sap and the transfer 
of plant food from root to leaf and from leaf to root. 



10 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Exercise. — Sap Channels in Stems. — Put the stems of 
fresh plants into water colored with red ink. After a few 
hours cut off the stems and notice the stained places on the 
cut surface. Use for this exercise some woody stems, as 
willow, and others like celery or rhubarb, golden-rod, corn, 
tall grass, or other convenient plants. 

The different ways in which the stems of various plants 
hold the leaves up to the light and air are interesting. Vines 
do this by climbing upon objects which they may find near 
them. Trees have rigid stems which hold the leaves high 
in the air. Those growing in dense forest clumps are taller 
and more slender than those growing in open places where 
there is plenty of light. This is also true of corn-stalks planted 
close or far apart. 

The leaves of the plant have much work to do. They 
secure substances from the air, chiefly carbon dioxide, and 
change it into forms of food that will build up the plant or 
produce growth. The leaves also permit the escape of water 
from the plant into the air. Water is taken up by the roots, 
not by the leaves. There are large amounts of water given 
off by the leaves during the growth of the plants. 

Exercise. — Plants Absorb Moisture. — Get the material 
shown in Fig. 3a. After the corn or other plant is a few 
inches high, start the experiment. Have the water line 
marked on the lard pails one inch above the bottom of the 
pots. Each day fill the water up to the mark, and record 
the amount required for each pail in two weeks. If the one 
wath the growing plant requires the most, where has the 
extra water gone to ? 

Exercise. — Moisture from Leaves. — Arrange an exper- 
iment as shown in Fig. 36. The moisture which escapes 
from the leaves will partly be condensed on the inside of the 
inverted glass, and may be seen in fine mist or drops. 

Leaf Structure. — Fig. 4 shows the cut edge of a leaf. 
Between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf there are 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 11 

many soft plant cells. These cells have very thin walls 
and are bathed by air. The air cavities are shown at A in 
the figure. All the cells showTi with dark grains in the figure 
contain the green coloring matter of the leaf. This is called 
chlorophyl (klo-ro-fil) . The use of this will be spoken of later. 





Fig. 3a. — Growing plants absorb moisture from the soil. Two flower-pots 
with equal amounts of the same kind of soil are set in lard pails having water up to 
the line shown. Corn is growing only in the left one. (Agricultpral Education.) 

Fig. 36. — Evaporation of water from leaves. The condensed moisture shows 
in the upper part of the glass inverted ever the growing plant. (Agricultural 
Education.) 

Exercise, — Skin of Leaf. — Break a leaf partly in two 
in such a manner as to peel the surface away from the inner 
cells. This surface layer of cells is clear and contains no 
chlorophyl, as shovvTi in Fig. 4. The outer layer of cells is 
so thin and clear that sunlight may pass through and reach 
the green cells of the inner part of the leaf. 

Air Openings. — Air may enter the leaf through small 
openings, chiefly on the under side. One of these openings 
is marked S in Fig. 4. These are called stomates, the word 
meaning "mouths." There are great numbers of the sto- 
mates on the under surface of leaves. They may be opened 
or closed according to the condition of the weather. This 
is done by the action of a pair of cells at the opening called 



12 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

guard-cells. The stomates are partly closed in dry weather. 
This keeps moisture from passing too freely out of the leaves 
into the air. 

Plants Get Food from Air. — Growing plants take much 
of the substance which produces growth directly from the 
air. They use the carbon dioxide from the air which is given 
off to the air by the breathing of animals and by the burning 
and decay of wood. This plant-food from the air furnishes 
about ninety-five per cent of the dry weight of plants. It 
is through the leaves that this form of food is taken. The 







S 

Fig. 4. — Cross section of leaf. The inner cells contain chlorophyl; those near 
th* under side are loose to allow the free passage of air (A), Many brea tiling pores 
arc in the under skin. One shows at S. 

breathing pores on the surface of green leaves allow the air 
to come in contact with the soft cells of the inner tissue 
(Fig. 4).^ 

Sunlight aids the plant in changing the carbon dioxide 
into starch or other organic food. Only those plants which 
contain the green coloring matter, chlorophyl, are able to 
use the carbon dioxide from the air and change it in this 
way. Mushrooms grow in the dark, and have no chlorophyl. 
Their food is not taken from the air nor from the real soil, 
but from the partly decomposed matter in the soil. 

Exercise. — Need of Sunlight. — Place a board, box, or 
other object over the green grass of a lawn and let it remain 
for several days. Notice that the color is soon gone from 
the leaves. In time the grass would be killed. Celery is 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 13 

blanched by excluding the light from the stems. Why does 
a covering of straw or other thick mulch in a strawberry 
patch prevent the growth of weeds? What harm comes from 
the accidental covering with soil of young corn plants by 
the cultivator? 

Exercise. — Leaves Seek Light. — Set some growing plants 
in the window for a few hours and notice that the leaves 
turn toward the light. Turn the plants around and see how 
long it takes for the leaves to face the light again. 

Exercise. — To Show Presence of Starch. — Crack a few 
kernels of wheat or corn and treat them with a few drops 
of iodine. The change of color which follows is a proof of 
the presence of starch. This was stored in the seed for its 
future use. Starch turns blue when treated with iodine. 
The same trial made with potato, corn-pith, pith of tree 
twigs, and many seeds, will show the presence of starch. 

Balance in Nature. — Animals use large quantities of 
oxygen from the air and return carbon dioxide to the air. 
Plants make use of the waste which animals breathe off. 
The plants break up this gas, retaining the carbon and giving 
off the oxj'gen. A small amount of oxygen is also used by 
plants. The carbon retained by the leaves and the water 
which the plants obtain from the soil are combined to form 
organic matter. This is chiefly starch at first, but it may 
be readily changed to sugar or other forms suitable for 
storage. In sugar-beets and sugar-cane the storage matter 
is largely sugar. 

Tissue for new growth of the plant may be formed either 
from stored plant-food or from newly-formed plant-food that 
has not been taken to any storage place in the plant. 

Exercise. — Balance of Life in an Aquarium. — Make an 
aquarium in a large fruit-jar or other glass vessel, as shown 
in Fig. 5. Very clear sand is used in the bottom. The plants 
are started from pieces of water plants commonly growing 
in ponds or lakes. The animals may be water insects of 



14 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




several kinds — polliwogs, water snails, and small fish. Set 
the aquarium in a very light place. When the plants begin 
to grow, they will give off oxygen to the water. The animals 
will breathe the oxygen from the water. A little careful 
observation will tell whether there are 
too many animals in the aquarium or 
not. If the fishes come to the surface 
to breathe a great deal, some of them 
should be taken out. Snails and polli- 
wogs are scavengers and ^vill eat the 
waste matter gathering on the inside of 
the glass and on the plants. Do not 
let the pupils feed the fishes too much. 
This will spoil the water for the fishes. 
How Plants Get Water. — The 
moisture from the soil is the only water 
taken in by farm crops. This enters 
through the thin covering of the root- 
hairs growing on the fibrous roots. 
The absorbing surface is very great and 
large quantities of liquid are taken 
up. It is estimated that several hun- 
dred tons of water or liquid food are taken up by a corn crop 
to produce one ton of dry fodder. 

Osmosis is the name of the process by which liquid food 
is taken into the plant through the roots. A little of the acid 
or other cell sap in the roots passes into the soil at the same 
time. There is a sort of trading of two liquids through the 
surface membrane of the root-hairs. A very little of the 
denser liquid of the plant is sent out in exchange for a large 
quantity of soil water. 

Osmosis may be defined as the exchange of two different 
liquids through a thin membrane which separates them. 
Two liquids separated by a membrane vdW pass through it 
and mingle with each other. Soil water will thus reach and 



Fig. 5. — A sunlight 
aquarium. The plants fur- 
nish oyxgen and the ani- 
mals use it. The animals 
produce carbon dioxide 
and the plants use it. 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 15 



mingle with the contents of root-hairs. The thin liquid 
passes more rapidly. Osmosis may be well illustrated in a 
number of ways. 

Exercise. — Osmosis with Potato. — Take a wilted potato 
tuber and cut it into slices about one-fourth inch thick. 
Place a few slices in water. They become more rigid in an 
hour or so because of the water taken into the cells. Place 
a few slices in strong salt water. They become more 
flaccid or wilted because of the water drawn from them into 
the brine. The potato sap is naturally denser than water, 
but not so dense as the salt water. 

Exercise. — Osmosis with an Egg. — In the small end of 
an egg make a hole a little larger than a pin head. Over 
this hole fasten a short piece of glass 
tubing. Melted paraffin or wax will 
fasten it well. At the large end of the 
egg chip away a bit of the shell. Place 
it with the large end down in the wide 
mouth of a bottle which is full of 
water (Fig. 6). After several hours 
Hquid will be seen to rise in the tube, 
evidently caused by water making its 
way through the thin membrane lining 
the egg-shell. This membrane shows 
no pores even under the microscope. 

Plant=food from Soil. — If plants 
take about ninety-five per cent of their 
food from the air there is left only 
about five per cent to be obtained from 
the soil. The plant-food from soils 
must be in soluble form, and is taken 
in with the soil water. When plant-food is soluble it can 
pass through the membrane of the fine root-hairs growing 
on the roots of plants. It produces in the plant the part 
of the tissue which is called the ash or mineral matter. 




Fig. 6. — Osmosis with 
an egg over a bottle of 
water. The egg liquid and 
the water exchange places 
through the membrane of 
the egg. Water moves the 
faster and soon fills the 
shell to overflowing. 



16 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Problem. — One hundred pounds of cured corn fodder 
contain 58 pounds of dry matter, 2.9 pounds of which are 
from the soil and the remainder from the air. What per 
cent of the dry matter is from each source? 

Exercise. — Mineral Matter in Plants. — Burn a piece of 
very dry wood on a stove shovel in the stove, to save all the 
ashes on the shovel. If the dry wood be weighed first and 
the ashes be weighed afterward the exact proportion can 
be determined. The ash represents nearly all of the mineral 
matter in the wood. This part comes from the soil and the 
remainder chiefly from the air. This exercise shows how 
small a part of the plant's food is from the soil ; but this part 
is very necessary. Our farm crops could not live without 
the ash or mineral matter which they obtain from the soil. 

Other Needs of the Plant. — We have already seen that 
most plants need light to make use of the food which they 
get from the air. Light is not necessary for the germination 
of seeds in the soil. The leaves of the young plant soon seek 
the light by growing toward the surface of the soil. 

The need of moisture has also been considered. 

Other needs of the plants are a proper amount of warmth 
and a supply of air. 

Light, heat, moisture, and air are all needed by growing 
crops. 

Temperatures. — Certain degrees of warmth are necessary 
for the best growth of plants and the sprouting of seeds. 
Very few seeds will sprout if colder than 40 degrees F. or 
warmer than 115°. Wheat will not sprout below 41° and 
prefers a warmth of 60° or 70°. Corn needs more heat; even 
48° is too cold for it and soil as warm as 70° or even 90° suits 
it better. Seeds that sprout in cool soil may be planted in 
earliest spring time; while those which require more heat 
must be planted later. 

Air and Oxygen. — Not only must the leaves and stems 
of plants have free access to air, but the roots of our farm 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 17 

crops must be in soils supplied with oxygen. If there is too 
much standing water in a field the air is excluded from the 
soil and crops do not thrive. The leaves of plants turn 
yellowish and show an unhealthy condition if the soil is not 
supplied with air. This may be noticed in the wet parts of 
a cornfield. If the soil is well drained, the surplus water 
gets away and air is drawn into the soil. 

Exercise. — Need of Air for Germination. — Put a dozen 
or more beans or kernels of corn in a bottle nearly full of 
water. In another bottle place a dozen of the same kind, 
thoroughly wet but not submerged in water. Cover both 
bottles loosely to prevent loss of water. Put both in a 
warm place and watch results for a week or so. The water 
in the first bottle excludes the air from the seeds. If they 
do not sprout it will be for want of air. When crops are 
planted in low, wet places in fields the seeds refuse to grow 
for lack of air. 

Exercise. — Need of Air in Soil. — Two cans of soil may 
be planted alike with the beans or corn. Have one can 
watertight at the bottom, and the other with plenty of 
holes through the bottom for drainage. When the plants 
have gro^vn a few inches high fill the undrained can with 
water to the top of the soil. Notice the effect on the plants 
in that can. Compare with the others having air and moist- 
ure both in the soil. 

Purpose of Flowers. — The main aim of life for all plants 
is to produce seed. To do this a flower must be formed. 
The form and structure of flowers are quite variable, as seen 
when the strawberry is compared with the lady-slipper 
and the apple. 

A perfect flower has two different kinds of essential 
organs, the pistils and the stamens. The stamens bear 
pollen, which is carried to, or falls upon, the pistil. This 
fertilizes the pistil and enables it to produce the seed. The 
seed or seeds of most plants are borne in the lower part ol 



18 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

the pistil called the ovary, as shown in Fig. 8. The other 
parts of a perfect flower are shown in that figure. 

Imperfect Flowers. — The flowers of many plants are not 
perfect. Some of them bear the stamens only and others 
the pistils. In the cucumber, musk-melon, and others, the 
stamens and the pistils are in different flowers on the same 
plant. In any case where the flowers are not perfect, the 




Fig. 7. — Strawberry blossoms. Those on the left are of varieties each having 
both stamens and pistils. Those on the right have only pistils. Varieties whi-on 
have only pistils must be grown near perfect varieties so the pollen may be carried 
to them at the blossoming time. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 

pollen must be carried by some means to the flowers having 
the pistils; otherwise seed could not be formed. 

How Pollen is Carried. — The pollen of corn and many 
grasses is very light and dry and is carried by the ^dnd. Some 
of it fafls upon the pistils and grows, thus helping to form 
seed. The pollen of most fruits and vegetables is rather 
sticky and heavy and is carried by insects. Bees and other 
insects visit the blossoms in search of nectar to make honey. 
As they go from flower to flower even among the perfect 
blossoms, much pollen is distributed where it is needed. 
These insects are attracted to flowers by the bright showy 
colors of the petals of the flower, and by their fragrance. 
Showy petals and fragrant blossoms are not found on com, 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 19 



grains, and grasses, because their pollen is borne by the wind. 

Cross Pollination. — Plants are said to be cross pollinated 
when the pollen is taken from one to another by some means. 
Many of our fruit trees bear much more and better fruit 
when they are cross pollinated. A number of varieties of 
apples, pears, peaches, and plums will not bear fruit if grown 
by themselves. They produce abundant fruit when polli- 
nated by other varieties of the same class that blossom at 
the same time, ^"'or this reason it is of much benefit to have 
plenty of bees in the orchard at work gathering their supply 
of honey during the blossoming season. The owner of a 
large orchard should have a yard of beehives. The work of 
the bees gives him a larger crop of fruit as well as a crop 
of honey. 

Exercise. — Parts of a Flower. — The members of the 
class should examine a few large, 
simple flowers and learn to name 
the parts shown in Fig. 8. 
United States Farmers' Bulletin 
408 will be helpful in this exercise. 

Exercise. — Pollination of 
Corn. — Have students or others 
bring to school ears of corn on 
which some of the kernels failed 
to develop. This shows the result 
of poor pollination. Perhaps a 
hot wind injured the silks, or 
pistils, before the pollen was re- 
ceived. Other ears may be shown 
which have sugar-corn kernels 
mixed with field corn, or have 
white kernels among the yellow. 
was carried from other corn plants. Two different kinds 
of corn should not be planted close together if it is desirable 
to keep the varieties pure. 




Fia. 8. — Diagram of cross sec- 
tion of a flower, p, pistil; o, ovary 
with young seed receiving the pol- 
len growth; ST, stamens; po, pollen 
scattering from stamen to pistil; 
PE, petals; se, sepals. 



These prove that pollen 



fiO PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Purpose of Seeds. — A true seed bears within its coats 
a minute plant called the germ. Its purpose is to develop 
into a new plant like the parent plant. Some nourishment 
is stored in the seed for the use of the young plant when it 
begins to grow. This store of nourishment in the bean is 
in the two seed leaves or thickened halves of the bean. In 
the corn kernel a store of starchy matter is found about the 
germ. 

Exercise. — Study of Seeds. — Soak some large lima beans 
and some kernels of corn for a few days. Let each member 
of the class find the little plant inside the bean coats; and 
the long oval germ of the corn imbedded in the store of 
starchy matter. Other large seeds may be soaked and studied 
closely. 

Duration of Life. — ^With respect to their length of life 
most farm plants are divided into three groups: annuals, 
biennials, and perennials. 

Annual plants are illustrated by corn, oats, beans, and 
peas. They germinate, grow, blossom, bear seed, and die 
within one year. No part lives over to the next year but the 
seed. 

Biennials are not so numerousamong farm ci-ops. Exam- 
ples are beets, carrots, parsnip, onions, and cabbage. They 
germinate, grow, and store a large supply of nourishment 
the first "year. The. second year they use up this store of 
nourishment, send up a flower stalk, produce flowers and 
seeds, and then die. Only the seeds live over. 

Perennials include many of the grasses, alfalfa, trees, 
shrubs, and many others. They germinate and grow for 
some time without bearing blossoms andl seeds. When old 
enough they begin blossoming and bearing fruit. This may 
continue year after j'ear for several or many years. The 
peach tree bears some fruit the second or third j'ear and 
dies after ten or fifteen years. The apple tree does not bear 
so young but lives much longer. 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 21 

REVIEW. 

1. Name the five parts of a plant. 

2. What two purposes have roots ? 

3. What is the use of the root cap ? 

4. Describe the location and appearance of root hairs. 

5. Give several purposes of plant stems. 

6. What are the uses of leaves ? 

7. Draw and describe the structure of the leaf, showing the air cav- 
ities and the stomates. 

8. What food do plants get from the air ? What do they make 
from this ? 

9. What plants use sunlight ? How does it help them ? 

10. Tell of the balance in nature in the production and use of 
carbon dioxide and of oxygen. 

11. Tell how the oxygen supply is produced and used in an aqua- 
rium in the window. 

12. How do field crops get their water ? 

13. What is osmosis ? 

14. Give one or two examples of osmosis. 

15. How much of the food of plants comes from the air, and how 
much from the soil ? 

16. From what source is the ash or mineral matter derived ? The 
starch ? 

17. Mention four climatic needs of the growing crop. 

18. Tell of suitable temperatures for the sprouting of corn and of 
wheat. 

19. What is the effect of no air in the soil, for germinating seeds 
and for growing crops ? 

20. Tell of the purpose of flowers. 

21. Name the two essential organs of a perfect flower, and give the 
use of each 

22. Whac are the two chief ways by which pollen is carried ? 

23. Give two ways in which flowers attract bees and other insects. 

24. What is cross pollination ? Of what benefit is it in orchards 7 

25. Why should fruit growers keep bees ? 

26. What is the purpose of the germ in a seed ? 

27. Where is the storage matter in the bean ? In the corn kernel 7 

28. Give the life cycle of an annual. 

29. Describe the work each year of the biennial plant. 

30. Define a perennial. Give examples. 

References.— United States Farmers' Bulletins: 617, School 
Lessons on Corn; 1905 Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
pages 257-274, The Use of Illustrative Material in Teaching Agriculture 
in Rural Schools. 



22 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



CHAPTER II. 
PLANT IMPROVEMENT— GOOD SEED. 

One of the best ways to improve our crops on the farms 
or in the gardens is to select good seeds for planting. It is 
a law of nature that " like produces like." 

Seed Selection. — Careful selection year by year will 
gradually improve any crop. The seeds should be healthy 
in every respect, free from impurities, large and heavy for 
its kind, and taken from the best plants. We may save seeds 
from those plants in the garden that show the qualities 
which we want. The same care should be exercised in the 
selection of seed wheat, oats, rye, and other field crops. In 
the case of corn and potatoes it is possible to select seed in 
the field from the best individual plants or hills, but in the 
case of small grains this method would not be practicable. 
With these grains we should follow some good method of 
grading to secure good, large, plump kernels; such have the 
best characters (Fig. 9). 

Sifting and Fanning Grain. — Sieves are very useful for 
separating the poor seed from the good. Meshes of just the 
proper size are used to screen the large and let the small 
fall through the sieve. The practice of winnowing the grain, 
used in olden times, is now replaced by the use of fanning 
mills. Fanning devices are usually found in threshing ma- 
chines to separate the chaff, lighter seeds, and trash from the 
heavier grains. All seeds to be sown should be cleaned and 
re-cleaned until they are pure and of the best quality. (See 
exercise with large and small radish seeds, page 26.) 

Wheat and other small grains have been less improved 
by selection than corn because the kernels are handled less, 
and being smaller less attention is given to their individual 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 



23 



characters when being harvested. The smaller grains are 
now receiving the attention of a few experiment stations, 
and valuable improvements are being made. 

Choosing from the Best. — With garden plants such as 
squashes, melons and tomatoes we should not only choose 
good specimens from -which to save seed, but we should select 
those specimens from plants that yield large crops of good 
fruits. This selection can be done more carefully by the 
grower himself than it can by any wholesale methods where 
large quantities are carelessly saved from large areas. When 







Fig. 9. — Good plump wheat at tlie loft; a poor type of wheat at tho right, with 
narrow shrivelled kernels. (Experiment Station, Kans.) 

a few desirable individual plants are found, they can be 
rapidly multiplied. 

The Ear=Row Method. — The best ear of corn from the 
best bearing stalk may be saved for seed and planted in a 
row by itself. This corn may produce many good stalks 
with ears as good or better than the one we began with. 
If the corn of each ear is grown in a separate row we can 
compare the yields of these rows and select the next seed 
accordingly. These best ears should be grown in a separate 
field where the wind cannot carry pollen to it from other 
cornfields. 

The Hill=Row Method. — Potatoes should be grown from 
those found on the best individual plants. If the potatoes 
from two plants or hills weigh about the same they may be 
planted in separate rows. The best row will next furnish 
the hills for seed-potatoes. 

Bud Selection. — Peaches, plums, apples, grapes, and 
some other fruits are propagated by the use of buds, grafts, 
3 



24 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



cuttings, and divisions of the plants. The buds or othei- 
parts are taken from the best plants of the preferred varieties. 
Their seed, if used, would not come true to kind. 

Exercise. — Looking for Weed Seed. — Let each pupil 
have a half teaspoonful of clover or other common farm 
seeds. Spread them on a sheet of white paper. Let the seed 
be examined without the aid of lenses first. The weeds that 
are known should be put to one corner of the paper which 
is labeled "known weeds." In another place put the un- 
known weeds; and in another the dirt, grit, sticks, and other 



FiQ. 10. 



Fig. U. 




Fig. 10. — Teacher showing the class how to examine a seed sample. 
Fig. 11. — Seeds on the thumb, magnified through a reading glass. 

dead matter; in another the shriveled seed of the kind you 
have present. Single seeds are removed by use of a moist 
pencil pomt or similar object. When the study is completed, 
count or estimate the lots of each kind to determine the per 
cent of each. 

Exercise. — Another Way of Looking at Seeds. — Moisten 
the first joint of the thumb of the left hand and dip it into 
the seed to be studied. One layer of seed will cover the 
moist surface. With a lens or reading glass in the right hand 
the seed may be carefully examined for impurities (Figs. 
10 and 11). 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 25 

Exercise. — Identifying Weed Seeds. — The figures in 
U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 260 and 382 will help to determine 
the names of the weed seeds not known by the pupils. Let 
students cut out the figures and paste them on a card for 
quick reference. If the school has a collection of weed seeds 
in small bottles (Fig. 15), they may now be used to help 
identify the unknown seeds. 

Exercise. — To Compare Good and Poor Lots of Grass 
Seeds. — Take a piece of clean window glass and wet it with 
water. Spread on it a thin layer of blue-grass or of red-top 
seeds. Hold the glass between you and the bright light. 
Notice how many of the glumes or husks are hollow. Com- 
pare in this way a good sample with a poor one. Note the 
difference in the amount of chaff. 

Seed Analysis. — The methods of studying seeds outlined 
in two preceding exercises may be called seed analysis. The 
sieves mentioned before may also be used in analyzing a 
sample of seed as well as in aiding in the cleaning of large 
quantities. 

Seed Testing. — Another way to detect impurities in 
seeds is by sprouting a sample of the seed and then observ- 
ing the differences in character of growth; they may differ 
in the shape or number of seed leaves, or in manner of coming 
out of the seed coats. 

Another reason for seed testing is to determine the 
vitality or germinating power of the sample. 

There are several advantages of knowing the vitality: 

1. It will save us buying poor seed if we test a sample 
before buying. 

2. If the test is low we will not use the seed at all, even 
if we own it. 

3. If it is as good as we can get we will plant enough more 
seed than usual to allow for the reduced vitality. 

4. Thus knowing how much to plant, will save us the 
time, labor, and expense of replanting a crop after the first 
planting shows a poor stand. 



26 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

5. The first planting being made with good seed will give 
us a good even stand at the proper season, instead of too late. 

6. This means a better harvest and good return for labor 
expended in cultivation through the season. 

Methods of Testing Seeds. — When seeds are to be tested 
they must be given proper moisture, warmth, and air; these 
must not change much during the test. A warm living room 
is about right if the moisture is held close about the seeds. 

A common way is to take two lots of one hundred seeds 
each; these are planted in a shallow box of moist sand. 

Another good way to test seeds is to place them in pans 
or deep plates between wet blotters or layers of wet cloth 
(Fig. 12). The plates are placed one above another as high 
as desired. A label is made for each lot of seeds by using 
pencil and paper, thus: 

Date — February 10. 

Number of seeds 100 

Kind Red clover 

Number sprouted 90 

Per cent of good seed 90 

Folds of wet cloth may be made. A lot of seeds with its 
label is placed in each fold. This is carefully placed in a cov- 
ered pan in a warm place. If a hundred seeds are taken each 
time, the per cent of germination is more exactly expressed. 

Exercise. — Test Seeds. — Have grains and garden seeds 
brought to school. Have them counted, labeled, and tested 
by each method described here. Winter and early spring 
are good times to make such trials with seeds. 

Exercise. — Size of Seeds. — From a large package of 
radish seeds, select 100 of the largest, and another 100 of 
the smallest. Make sprouting tests of these two lots, by 
planting them in a shallow box of moist sand or soil. Keep 
them in separate rooms, and label them. Does the result 
show that gardeners should select large seeds? Could this 
be done with sieves? 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 27 

Buy the Best. — It seldom pays to buy cheap seeds. The 
age, size, weight, purity, and vitality should be determined 
when buying. Protect seeds from mice, insects, and moisture. 

Cheap seeds are sometimes mixed with better seeds if 
the two kinds look much alike. Old seeds which have nearly 
lost their life are sometimes made fresh looking by using 
fumes of sulfur. These are then mixed with good seeds 
and sold. Such mixtures are called adulterations. 





Fig. 12. — A convenient home apparatus for testing seeds. The seeds are germi- 
nated between wet cloths or blotters. The plates help to hold the moisture 
(Agricultural Education.) 

Immature seeds are those not fully ripened; such seed 
caimot sprout well. To sprout under ordinary field con- 
ditions, the seed must be fully matured. 

SECTION ON WEEDS 

The Weed Nuisance. — One of the greatest hindrances 
to good farming is the presence of weeds in the fields. Weed 
seed is in the soil, in the grain, grass seed, and nearly all 
farm seeds (Figs. 13a and b). There are thirty or more un- 
desirable weeds to be found in clover seed and alfalfa seed. 
The grass seed is too often full of bad we'ed seed. There 
is no place on the farm where weeds are a greater enemy 
to our success than in the grass fields. It is harder to get 
rid of them there than from the fields where we are doing 
some tilling. But most of the weeds found in the pastures 
and hay-fields have been sown there or near there by some 
farmer, at some time in the past. Some weed seeds are 
sown from fence rows by the wind. 



28 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Examining for Impurities. — Weed seeds and other im- 
purities can usually be seen with a common reading glass or 
pocket microscope. The proper thing to do is to examine 
seeds before buying them, and avoid spending money for 
weed seeds to sow on the farm. At least let us look at the 
seed before sowing it (Fig. 14). 

Weeds have been briefly defined as "plants out of place.'* 
This is a satisfactory meaning of the term, for many plants 
that are grown for the uses of man are objectionable when 




Fig. 13a. — Hay-field filled in late summer with wild carrots or Queen 
Anne's lace. 

Fig. 13b. — Hay-neld "taken" by dandelions. 

found among other crops. Rose bushes sprouting in a corn- 
field are called weeds. Likewise corn in a rose garden is 
considered as a .weed. Noxious iceeds, however, are those 
plants which are very frequently found in fields, or gardens, 
or other undesirable places. 

Classification. — Weeds may be grouped, according to 
the length of life, into annuals, biennials, and perennials. 

Annual weeds bear blossoms and seeds the first year 
and then die entirely. This group includes many of our 
most abundant weeds, such as rough pigweed, lamb's-quar- 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 29 

ter, Russian tumbleweed, the large sunflower, horseweed 
or fieabane, ragweed, Spanish needles, buffalo bur, purs- 
lane, cocklebur, com cockle, mustard, chickweed, and field 
dodder. 

The annual weeds are more commonly found in with 
annual crops such as grain, com, potatoes, and garden 
annuals; this is chiefly because the weed seeds sown each 
year by the plants find ready lodgment in the freshly plowed 
or cultivated fields and gardens. 



Fig. 14. — Seeds mounted in holes in heavy pasteboard between two pieces of 
glass held with paper binding. A tripod lens used for seed study. (Agricultural 
Education.) 

One of the easiest ways to get rid of a bad field of annual 
weeds is to rotate the crops by thickly seeding the field to 
clover or grasses. Annual weeds are seldom found in such 
fields, particularly after the first cutting of the hay. 

Biennial weeds are those plants which live two years, 
the first year making a vigorous growth and storing some 
nourishment, but bearing no blossoms nor seeds until the 
second summer. There are not many common kinds of 
weeds in this group. Burdock, teasel, bull thistle, wild 
carrot (Fig. 13a) and parsnip are common biennial weeds. 

Perennial weeds live several years and bear blossoms 



30 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

and seeds each year. The roots or underground parts live 
over from year to year, and usually new leaves and stems 
are sent up from the old roots in the spring. Such weeds 
are most commonly found in pastures, hay-fields, lauTis, 
roadsides, and fence rows. They grow in places where their 
roots may live undisturbed in the soil from year to year. 
Because of this we may conclude that rotation of crops will 
help destroy them. When a hay-field is plowed and harrowed 
for com, nearly all kinds of perennial weeds are killed. 

Examples of perennials are: Canada thistle, quack or 
couch grass, Johnson grass, curled or yellow dock, smart- 




Fio, 15. — Seed samples in wooden case, bottles held in place with shoestring. 

(Agricultural Education.) 

weed, dandelion (Fig. 136), golden hawkweed, milk-weed, nut 
sedge, ox-eye daisy, rib-grass plantain, wide-leaved plan- 
tain, red field sorrel, toad flax, white and purple fall aster, 
wild garlic, chicory. 

Persistent Weeds. — Among the perermial weeds those 
which are most troublesome are either provided with (1) a 
rapid means of spreading, or (2) a fleshy root or bulb. Those 
with rimners which take root at the joints are seen in some 
grasses, as Bermuda grass, and the trailing white clover, and 
the running buttercup. Some have underground runnmg 
rootstocks that send up new shoots at the joints, as Johnson 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 31 

grass, quack or couch grass, red field sorrel, Canada thistle, 
and toad flax. Examples of bad weeds with fleshy under- 
ground parts are: wild onions, garlic, curled or yellow dock, 
dandelion, and many others. 

Fighting Bad Perennial Weeds. — There are several 
methods of fighting bad perennial weeds such as those men- 
tioned in the preceding paragraph. 

1. In most cases the best method of fighting persistent 
weeds is to practice very frequent tillage to prevent exposure 
of the green leaves to the sunlight. This method is eco- 
nomical when there is a crop on the land which is benefited 
by frequent tillage, as com, cotton, and garden crops. 

2. In some cases a dense growth of grain, millet, alfalfa, 
or other close-growing crop may be effective in choking do\vn 
or smothering the weeds 

3. Smothering of small patches of weeds is sometimes 
accomplished by means of straw stacks placed over them. 
Tar paper may be used in some cases. 

4. Sheep in pastures will crop do\vn many weeds and keep 
them under control. Hogs confined in small areas will root 
out many bad kinds of weeds and completely destroy them. 
In small poultry yards weeds are kept in complete subjec- 
tion by fowls eating off their tops closely. 

5. Frequent mowing of pastures, meadows, and yards 
will aid materially in checking certain kinds of bad weeds. 
It makes the grass grow better and retards asters, chicory, 
plantains, hawkweed, dock, and many others. 

6. Chemicals are sometimes used on the crowns and roots 
of weeds in yards, walks, roads, or where only a few weeds 
have started. Chemicals used for this are salt, copper sulfate, 
iron sulfate, kerosene, carbolic acid, and others. Salt on the 
bad weeds in pastures often causes the cattle and sheep to 
eat them down to get the salt. 

Spraying Weeds. — Annual weeds, such as wild mus- 
tard, com cockle, and others that are bad in grain fields are 



S2 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

often controlled by spraying with iron sulfate before the grain 
begins to send up its stems. The principle involved in this 
method is this: The leaves of most grain crops and grasses 
are naturally protected by a coating of wax or "bloom" 
which keeps off the chemical and prevents their injury. The 
weeds when young are tender and not thus protected. Hence 
the chemical may be made strong enough to kill many kinds 
of weeds without killing grasses or grain crops. 

Exercise. — Collecting Weed Specimens. — In the fall of 
the year a collection of weeds should be made by the student. 
One set of the specimens should be kept at the school. They 
may be dried by spreading out the plants between large 
folded newspapers. Put the pile of papers and plants on 
the floor; place over them a board and stone or other heavy 
object. This pressure will drive the moisture from the plants 
into the papers. Change the papers from day to day until 
the plants feel quite dry. They may then be fastened to 
sheets of paper or cardboard eleven by seventeen inches. 
Find the names of the weeds from any one who knows them, 
group them into annuals, biennials, and perennials. U. S. 
Farmers' Bulletin 28 will be of much help in the study of 
weeds. 

Exercise. — Seed Collection. — Let the pupils bring to 
school in the fall such weed seeds as they can find upon the 
known weeds. These may be carried in small papers or old 
envelopes on which the name of the plant is written. These 
may be transferred to small bottles as in Fig. 15, or to holes 
in a seed board made like the one shown in Fig. 14. A col- 
lection of farm and garden seeds should also be made for 
the school to use. 

Common Weeds. — An alphabetical list of some bad weeds, 
with useful information regarding them is given in the table, 
(A = annual, B= biennial, P= perennial.) (Adapted from 
H. R. Cox, U. S. Department Agriculture.) 



Description of Common Weeds. 



Common name, botanical 
name, and duration of life. 



Bindweed, field bindweed 
(Convolvulus), P. 

Bull nettle, horse nettle 
(Solanumcarolinense),'P. 

Chess, cheat (Bromus seca- 
linus), A. 

Chickweed, common chick- 
weed (Alsine media), A. 

Cocklebur, clotbur (Xan- 
thium americanum) , A. 



Crab-grass {Syntherisma 
sanyuinale), A. 

Daisy, oxeye daisy (Chrys- 
anthemum leucanthe- 
mum), P. 



Dandelion {Taraxacum offi- 
cinale), P. 

Dock, yellow dock, sour 
dock (Rumex crispus), P 



Fleabane, horseweed (Eri- 
geron canadensis), A. 

Foxtail, yellow foxtail, 
pigeon grass {Climtnchlua 
glauca), A. 



Lamb's-quarters, piciweed 
{Chenopodium album) , A. 
Lettuce, prickly lettuce 
(LactTxa virosa), A. 

Pigweed, redroot, careless 
weed {Amaranthus retro- 
flexus), A. 

Plantain, buckthorn, rib- 
grass (Plantago lanceo- 
lata), P. 



Poison ivy, poison oak 
(Rhus toxicodendron), P. 



Purslane, pusley (Porlu- 
laca oleracca), A. 

Ragweed, smaller ragweed 
(Ambrosia elatior), A. 



Sorrel, sheep sorrel, horse 
sorrel (Rumex acetcsella) , 
P. 



Color, size, and 
arrangement of 
flowers. 



White or pink; 1 
inch; solitary. 

Purple; 1 inch; 
solitary. 

Green; spikelets 
in panicles. 

White; | inch; 
cymes. 

Green; J inch; 
head. 



Green; spikes. . 



White with yel- 
low center; 1 
inch; heads. 



Yellow; 1\ inch; 
head. 

Green; J inch; 
panicle. 



White; J inch; 

heads in cymes 

Green; spikes. . . 



Green; very 

small; panicle. 

Yellow; J inch; 
heads in pan- 
icles. 

Green; quite 
small; spikes 
in panicles. 

White; j"g inch; 
spike. 



Greenish white; 
J inch; pan- 
icles. 

Yellow; i inch; 
solitarj'. 

Yellow; J inch; 
small heads on 
spikes. 

Red; J inch; 
panicles. 



Method of seed 
distribution ; 
vegetative 
propagation of 
the perennials. 



Grain and flax 
seeds; creeping 
roots. 

Plants rolled by 
wind; running 
roots. 

Grain seed, espe- 
cially wheat. 

In crop seeds; has 
a long seeding 
period. 

Carried by ani- 
mals. 



Clover and grass 
seed, hay, ani- 
mals. 

Clover seed, hay; 
woody, rather 
short rootstocks, 
but largely by 
seed. 

Wind; taproot, 
which spreads 
but little. 

Hay and straw, 
clover and grass 
seed ; taproot, 
which spreads 
but little. 

Hay, grass and 
clover seeds. 

Animals, hay, 
grain, and grass 
seeds. 



Grain and grass 

seed. 
Wind 



In grain and grass 
seeds; plants 
blown by wind. 

Hay, clover and 
grass seed; 
spreads but 
slowly from a 
crown. 

Does not spread 
fast by seeds; 
running root- 
stocks. 

Implements; has 
a long seeding 
period. 

Wind carrying 
matured plants; 
ingrain and red- 
clover seeds. 

In clover seed; 
creeping roofs. 



Place of growth 
and products in- 
jured. 



Rich moist soils; 

grain and hoed 

crops. 
Everywhere; grain 

and hoed crops, 

pastures. 
Everywhere; grain 

fields. 
Meadows, lawns; 

winter crops. 

Cultivated fields 

and waste places, 

hoed crops and 

wool. 
Cultivated fields, 

gardens, lawns; 

hoed crops. 
Pastures, meadows, 

roadsides; hay, 

pasturage. 



Lawns, meadows, 
waste places; 
hay and lawns. 

Hay, email grain, 
and hoed crops. 



Meadows, pastures 
and grain fields. 

Land cultivated in 
early part of 
season; young 
grass and clover 
seedlings. 

Grain fields and 
hoed crops. 

Everywhere; all 
crops. 

Plowed land; hoed 
crops. 

Everywhere; 
meadows, pas- 
tures, and lawns. 



Moist rich land, 
along fences; 
poisonousby con- 
tact. 

Rich cultivated 
land, gardens; 
hoed crops. 

Everywhere; 
grain stubble; 
hoed crops, grass 
seeding. 

Meadows and pas- 
tures. 



3t PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

REVIEW. 

1. Tell of the value of sifting and fanning grain which is to be used 
for seed. 

2. From which plants in a garden should the gardener save seeds 7 

3. Describe the ear-row method of improving eorn. 

4. Describe the hill-row method of improving seed potatoes. 

5. Tell why weeds are so prevalent and give a remedy. 

6. Why should farm seeds be examined before they are purchased 
or sown ? 

7. Tell how to analyze a sample of clover seed. 

8. Tell how to mount a sample of grass seed to study its value. 

9. Give a number of advantages from knowing the vitality of seeds. 

10. Describe the plate method of seed testing. 

11. Describe some other good method of testing seeds. 

12. Tell of some ways in which seeds are sometimes adulterated. 

13. What are immature seeds ? Why not plant such ? 

14. Tell how seeds should be stored„ 

15. What are noxious weeds ? 

16. What are annuals ? biennials ? perennials ? 

17. Where are annual weeds most commonly fovmd ? 

18. In what places are perennials most commonly found ? 

19. Name several annual weeds. 

20. Name several common biennial weeds. 

21. Name all the perennial weeds you can. 

22. Name some of the most persistent weeds. 

23. How are they propagated? 

24. Name several methods of fighting bad weeds. 

25. When and with what are weeds sometimes sprayed? 

26. Of what value is a collection of weed specimens in school? 

27. Why should every one know the common weeds? 

28. Would a collection of seeds properly labeled be of use in 
school? Why? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 382, Adulteration of Forage 
Plant Seeds; 428, Testing Farm Seeds; 660, Weeds. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 35 



CHAPTER III. 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS. 

The Raising of Fruit Trees. — Plants propagate them- 
Belves naturally either by seeds or by buds. One or both of 
these natural methods is used by the farmer for all plants 
and crops. Very few fruits "come true" from seed because 
the seeds are formed by cross-pollination. The pollen is 
carried by insects and wind from other varieties. For this 
reason the nurserymen, who produce the young fruit trees 
or bushes, must avoid the use of seeds. With such fruits seeds 
may be used in an effort to secure new varieties, or to pro- 
duce stocks on which to grow the improved varieties; but 
the standard sorts are multiplied by some form of bud 
propagation, such as grafting, true budding, layering, and 
making cuttings. 

Propagation of Apples. — One common method for the 
production of young apple trees involves the use of grafting. 
It is called the root-grafting process. 

First. — Seeds from cider-presses are planted in garden 
rows and the young trees cultivated for one summer to get 
the greatest growth possible. These trees would probably 
never bear good apples if they were allowed to reach matu- 
rity, but they serve admirably as the stocks on which to grow 
good trees. They are taken up roots and all, in the fall, 
tied in bundles of one hundred each, and well stored in moist- 
ened sawdust in a very cold cellar. 

Second. — Well-matured shoots of one-year wood are cut 
for scions from the tops of good specimens of apple trees of 
the varieties we may wish to propagate. These are properly 
labelled, tied in bundles, and stored in the same manner as 
the seedling trees. This is done in late fall. 



86 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Third. — The actual work of grafting the tops of the 
desired varieties onto the roots of the young seedlings is to 
be done during the winter months. This work is done in 
the cool cellar and the little grafted trees are then tied into 
bundles and stored until warm spring weather. 

Fourth. — The httle trees are set in good rich garden soil, 
deep enough to cover the union or grafted point well. The top 
of the plant with a bud or two will be above the surface of the 
ground. The dirt should be well tramped around the grafts. 
Details of Root=grafting. — The tops are cut from the 
young seedling trees and destroyed. The top-shoots from 
good trees are inserted upon the roots in their place. The 
new tops are called scions. Thej^ may be only a few inches 
long and contain from three to six buds. The roots may be 

either used entire for each new 
tree; or they may be cut into 
pieces four to six inches long, 
and a graft made on each piece. 
Whip or Tongue Graft. — The 
kind of graft or union to make 
for apple root grafts is the one 
that is known by nurserymen 
as the tongue or whip graft. 
This is shown in Fig. 16; A 
represents the upper end of the 
l)ioce of root cut so that there 
is a tongue ready to slip be- 
neath a similar tongue made in 
the scion, shown at B. As 
soon as cut they are slipped 
together very firmly, as shown 
at C. Now a piece of waxed knitting cotton is wrapped 
about the grafted portion to hold the parts snugly together. 
It is necessary to have the root and scion of the same 
diameter or nearly so. The cambium, or growing layer, is 




Fig. 16. — Stops in root-grafting 
of apples. A, the small root tongue 
cut; B, the scion with tongue cut; 
C, the two in place ready to tie with 
waxed cotton. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 37 

just beneath the bark of each. If the cambium of the scion 
is in perfect contact with the cambium of the root, growth 
is hkely to take place, otherwise they will probably not live. 

Exercise. — Root-grafting. — Let the students have some 
practice in making root-grafts. Until the method is well 
learned, it is best to use willow or any other convenient 
switches to represent the roots and scions of apples. The 
second lesson may be with the real apple roots and apple 
scions. These may be secured in the neighborhood or from 
any nurseryman. For this exercise and the exercise in 
budding any wide thin-bladed pocket knives will do if better 
ones are not available. Have them very sharp. 

Exercise. — Making Grafting Wax. — Melt together in a 
tin can or pail one pound of rosin, one-half pound of beeswax 
or paraffin, and four ounces of tallow; when well melted and 
mixed allow the mass to cool a little and then pour it into 
a pail of cold water. Let one or two pupils rub tallow on 
their hands, work and pull the mass, as they would pull 
candy, until it is of a hght yellow color; make it into rolls 
and lay on a sheet of greased wrapping paper to harden. 

Exercise. — Waxing Cotton for Grafting. — While the wax 
is melted, in the preceding exercise, put into it for a few 
moments a ball of No. 18 or No. 20 knitting cotton. Remove 
it and let it cool on a sheet of greased paper. Pieces of this 
six or eight inches long will be used to wrap around each 
root-graft and may be used in the budding exercises. 

Budding Apple Trees. — New apple trees of the preferred 
varieties may be propagated by budding. This method is 
now quite common among nurserymen. The young seedling 
trees for stocks are grown in good soil for one season, or 
until August, from seeds sown the preceding spring. 

Scions or bud sticks are taken from the new growth on 
trees we wish to propagate. This is done in August or early 
September The leaves are all clipped off leaving about 
one-half inch of each leaf stem on the twig to serve as bud 



38 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



handles. The budding is done immediately. One bud from 
the budding stick is inserted just under the bark of the little 
seedling tree a few inches above the ground. How to insert 
the bud will be described under "Budding Peaches." 

The little seedling is not disturbed in this method of 
propagating apple trees. The roots are left growing in the 
soil. The new bud becomes united to the surrounding 
tissues that fall. All the top above the bud is pruned away 
(Fig. 17) just as soon as the new bud 
starts growth in spring, and all the 
natural buds of the seedling stock are 
rubbed off. Then the new bud makes 
a vigorous growth and is soon devel- 
oped into the new tree top. 

Another method is to insert the 
buds of the desired varieties in the 
little seedling trees the following 
spring. In this case the scions are 
taken when dormant and stored in a 
cold cellar until about June. This 
method is quite common in some sec- 
tions, particularly where the hot, dry 
weather of August would be injurious. 
After one 'season's growth the 
most vigorous budded or root-grafted 
trees are ready to transplant to the 
orchard. They are then called one- 
year old trees. Many apple growers prefer to leave them 
in the nursery one more year, and always select two- 
year-old trees for the setting out of new apple orchards. 
Budding Peaches and Plums.^ — Improved varieties of 
peaches and plums are propagated by budding. 

Stocks for this purpose are usually started from pits of 
native or seedling peaches and plums. Special kinds of stocks, 
however, are desired for a few particular varieties of plums. 




Fig. 17.— Method of 
pruning a budded tree 
after the new shoot starts. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 39 

The pits of peaches and plums are hard to start into 
growth, the shell is too hard for the germ to burst through. 
They must be frozen over winter or cracked by hand. Fre- 
quently layers of peach pits are covered with a little sand in 
shallow boxes. This is called stratifying the pits. These are 
left exposed to the weather over winter. The action of the 
frost should crack them. In spring they are to be planted 
in rows three feet apart in rich garden soil. They are given 
thorough tillage until August, when they are to be budded. 





Fia. 18. — Method of budding a young fruit tree. A, the bud and surrounding 
parts cut from a good variety; B, tlie T-shaped cut in barli of tree to be budded; 
C, the same rolled back ready to receive tlie good bud; D, the good bud set in place 
under bark; E, the bud and bark tied securely in place with waxed knitting cottoo 
or with raiBa fiber. 



Peach and plum scions or budding sticks are cut from 
the new growth on the trees of the desired varieties. The 
leaves are trimmed off, but stems are left near each bud to 
aid in handling when the bud is removed from the scion. 
The buds are inserted on the stocks right away. The oper- 
ator must get down close to the ground to do the work 
properly. The top of the seedling stock is cut away early 
the following spring before the buds swell. This forces all 
the sap of the root system to the new bud and the growth will 
be rapid. One-year-old trees of peach and plum varieties 



40 



PRODUCTIVE FARIVONG 



should be transplanted to the orchard. If left in the nur-- 
sery rows longer than for one year's growth from the bud, 
they are likely to become misshapen or overgrown and will 
be undesirable trees for the orchard. 

How Budding is Done. — A good, healthy bud is cut from 
the scion with the bark surrounding it in the form of a shield 
(Fig. 18, A). A cut is now made through the bark of the 
stock, in the form of a letter T, showni at B; this is pref- 
erably done on the north side 
of the stock to avoid the hot 
sun. Turn back the edges of 

^^«^^^^li^HBB^%/]^^ the bark as shown at C. 
^"^^^^ * i^Fi^^Wi^*!^ .ai ingei-t the bud into its new 

home just under the bark as 
shown at D. The top of the 
shield must be as low as the 
top of the T. Tie the bark 
down tightly over the edges of 
the shield as at E; waxed 
knitting cotton, No. 18 or 20, 
may be used for this, as it will 
not grow into the bark and 
stop circulation; raffia fiber 
is also good for this purpose. 
Exercise. — Practice in 
Budding. — Twigs from willow 
trees may be placed in water in a warm room in the winter 
and the bark well loosened in a few days. Use these to 
practise the method of budding just described. 

Top=working of Trees. — Tree tops may be changed from 
one variety to another. If an apple tree bears poor fruit 
it may be changed to bear good apples. This is done by 
top-working, as it is called. Many branches are cut off the 
poor tree, and in their places may be inserted new buds or 
grafted new scions of the variety desired (Fig. 19). This 




Fig. 19. — Cleft-grafting a fruit tree. 
The tree is severely cut back and good 
scions are grafted on. The boys are top- 
working the tree. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 41 

work is often done in June with scions held dormant in the 
cellar; or it may be done in August with scions of the current 
year's growth. Top-working is accomplished by one of three 
methods : budding, or tongue-grafting, or cleft-grafting. The 
first two methods have been described. Cleft-grafting is 
now less commonly used. (For a description of this method 
reference is made to U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 157 and 408.) 

Tip=layering. — This is the most common way of propa- 
gating black raspberries. The soil is cultivated at both sides 
of the raspberry row, and in late July or August the tips of 
the long canes, or stemS; are bent to the ground and slightly 
covered with soil (Fig. 20a). They will send down roots and 





Fig. 20a.- 
FiG. 206.- 



-Tip-layering. The young plant has taken root. 
-Vine-layering. The young plants are ready to be cut apart. 



develop new plants. The canes are cut loose from the young 
plants, which may then be transplanted to a new garden. 

Vine=Iayering.- — Several kinds of vines, including certain 
varieties of grapes, are propagated by layering (Fig. 206). 
A shallow furrow is made and a vine is laid in it and parts 
of it covered with soil with other parts exposed to the light. 
Shoots will start up and roots will be formed. The new 
plants may be cut apart with a spade; they are then ready 
to transplant to desired places. 

Mound=Iayering. — This is used for the propagation of 
gooseberries, quinces, and many ornamental shrubs. The 
earth is mounded up around the lower branches, which will 
then send new roots into the soil (Fig. 21). The following 



42 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fig. 21.— Mound-layering. The 
eoil is mounded among the shoots, 
and new roots will be formed. 



fall or spring the plants may be dug; the branches with their 
new roots will form new plants; then they are cut away 
from the parent plant. 

Division of Plants. — Some plants naturally form roots 
from the lowest parts or send up new shoots near the parent 

stalks. After the plant is dug it 
becomes an easy matter to pull 
or cut the parent plant into a 
number of smaller plants. This 
method of propagation is used 
in multiplying purple lilac, rhu- 
barb, asparagus, and many 
shrubs and herbs. 

Cuttings. — There are a few 
fruit plants and many others 
that can be propagated by cuttings. Currants, gooseberries, 
and several kinds of grapes may be multiplied by cuttings 
of the ripe wood. Blackberries are propagated by root- 
cuttings, — pieces of the roots 
dropped in a furrow and en- 
tirely covered. Many kinds 
of houseplants will grow from 
slips or cuttings of gi^een 
wood ; these are sometimes 
called soft-wood cuttings. 

Cuttings of ripe wood, six 
inches or more in length, 
should be taken in the fall 
after the leaves have dropped. 
They are cut from the new- 
est growth, and the strongest 
shoots are selected (Fig. 22). 
When tied into bundles they should be properly labelled and 
stored in damp sawdust in a cold cellar. In late spring 
they are set in deep furrows in rich garden soil with one 




Fig. 22. — Four forms of grape-vine 
cuttings. A, single eye or single bud; 
B, two buds; C, heel cutting; D, mallet 
cutting. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 43 

or two buds showing above ground. The soil must be 
pressed firmly about them (Fig. 23). In the case of grape 
cuttings one bud only is left projecting above the surface of 
the soil. 

Exercise. — Starting Slips at Home or at School. — In a 
shallow bo.x of moist, clean 
sand, plant a number of cut- 
tings of several house-plants. 
Keep the box in a warm room 
and water the soil frequently. 
These slips are made by 
taking a few inches of the 
healthy shoots and removing 
a large portion of the older 
leaves. For this exercise 
many forms of winter house- 
plants may be tried — begonia, 
carnation, geranium, fuchsia. 
roots in the sand, they may be transplanted to rich soil in 
well-drained pots or boxes. 




Fig. 23. — Cutting of red currants, 
showing depth for planting, allowing one 
or two buds to protrude. 



After the slips have formed 



REVIEW. 

1. Wliat are the two general plans by which plants naturally prop- 
agate themselves? 

2. Name four forms of bud propagation used by nurserymen. 

3. Describe the starting of stocks for the budding or grafting of 
young apple trees. 

4. Tell when to take scions and how to store them for winter root- 
grafting. 

5. When are root-grafts set out? and how? 

6. Describe the details of root-grafting. 

7. What is the cambium layer? Where is it? 

8. Tell how to make grafting wax and how to wax knitting cotton. 

9. What are used for stocks and for scions in the budding of young 
apple trees? 

10. At what two times of year is apple budding done? 

11. Tell how peach and plum stocks are started. 

12. When are peach scions cut from the trees? When is the budding 
usually done? 

13. What is the purpose of top-working old trees? 

14. How is this done? 



44 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

15. Describe tip-layering of black raspberries. 

16. Describe vine-layering for grapes. 

17. What is mound-layering? 

IS. Describe the cutting, storing, and planting of grape or currant 
cuttings. 

19. What plants may be propagated by soft-wood cuttings? 

Reference.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 157, The Propagation of 
Plants. 



CHAPTER IV. 
HOW SOILS ARE FORMED. 

The soil is one of those common things most of us think 
very Uttle about. We see it every day, we walk on it, we 
eat and wear its products, but we very seldom give it a 
thought. It may even surprise some of us to know that we 
get from the soil not only our food, our houses and our cloth- 
ing, but that all animal hfe comes indirectly from the soil. 
For every living thing comes originally from two primarj'' 
sources, the air and the soil. All elements or substances 
found in plants or animals are from either the soil or the air. 

The foods which plants secure from the air are too abun- 
dant to ever become exhaaoted by large farm crops. No 
human efforts are required to make them available to plants, 
except for the securing of nitrogen from air, when inoculation 
with certain bacteria may be necessary. The foods taken 
from the soil on the other hand are much less available, and 
the ability of plants to secure them may depend very largely 
on the efforts of the farmer. It is necessary for the farmer 
first of all to study his soil to see how he can make its plant- 
food most available. 

What Soil is. — That part of the earth's surface which 
can be tilled, and in which plants grow, is called soil It is 
the loose, highly decomposed layer of mineral matter result- 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 



45 



ing, primarily, from rock decay, which furnishes food and 
foothold for plant and animal life. 

Soil Builders. — Soil is derived from two main classes 
of substances; rock and organic matter. Rocks crumble 
into fine particles. They are gradually being changed into 
soil. Plants and animals decay to form the organic matter 
or humus in the soil. The humus present in our fields is 
chiefly of vegetable origin. 




Fig. 24. — A high hank of wind-blown soil. Notice where it has nearly covered the 

fence. (Plant Industry.) 



How Soils are Formed. — Certain forces are constantly 
at work changing rock into soil and making soil particles 
finer. These forces are: (1) air; (2) water; (3) temperature; 
(4) plants; (5) burrowing animals; and (6) minute plant 
and animal organisms. These forces act both physically and 
chemically. 

Exercise. — Soil Forming. — Find places near the school 
or at home where any of the agencies mentioned are at work 
forming soil. Tell of the places and what you have seen. 
Can you find places where water has carried soil? How are 
the little guUeys formed in hillsides? Where is the soil 
carried to? 



46 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The Action of Air and Temperature Changes. — The action 
of the air and the changes in temperature, which together we 
call weathering, is of many kinds. The heat of the sun causes 
the rock to expand. As all of the substances which make up 
a rock do not expand the same amount, the rock breaks and 
the particles flake off the surface In regions where the soil 
is not protected by vegetation the wind becomes an import- 
ant soil former (Fig. 24). The particles of soil are caught up 
by the wind and hurled against rocks and against cliffs, and 
grind the surface of the rocks and undermine the cliffs. This 




Fig. 25a. — A little stream falling many feet will wear away the hardest rock. 
The fine particles help to make up the soil. (Plant Industry.) 

Fig. 256. — A muddy water-fall. Soil is carried by swift current to the low land. 

little agent does a rea-,y large work. Then there is a chemical 
action of the air, in which certain substances in the air, as 
oxygen and carbonic acid, unite with certain substances in 
the rock and cause it to decompose. Such an action of the 
air is termed oxidation and is a slow burning or decay. 

A good example of weathering may be observed in the 
rapid crumbling of shale on exposure to the air. In such 
cases the air, temperature, and water each play an important 
part. 

Exercise. — The Action oj Air on Iron. — A familiar 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 



47 



illustration of oxidation is seen when iron is exposed to the 
air; the red rust that forms is an oxide of iron — a substance 
very different from the iron itself. To test for ourselves 
the action of air on iron we may take a piece of bright iron 
or steel, as the blade of a knife. Cover one end with linseed 
oil or wagon grease, and leave the other end exposed to the 
action of rain and air for a few days. Notice the effect on 
the exposed part. What lesson on the care of plows and 
other farm tools may we learn from this? 



r 



1 




Fig. 26. 



-A broad vallev of rich alluvial soil. This soil at some time was cliiefly 
part of the surrounding hills. (Plant Industry.) 



Water is the most powerful agent in decomposing or 
breaking down rock (Fig. 25a). Its action, especially in dis- 
solving rocks, is very important. Nearly all rocks are more 
or less affected by this action, and some, as limestone, are 
easily affected. 

Water breaks up rock by freezing. Most rocks contain 
cracks or openings into which the water readily flows; when 
the water freezes, it expands and forces the rock apart. 
SoUd rock is thus gradually broken to pieces by the freezing 



48 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

and thawing of water in it. This force is especially active 
in cold climates. 

Exercise. — To Show the A dion of Freezing Water. — Fill 
a small bottle with water and place it where the water will 
freeze;. The bottle will prol)ably be l>rokeii by the expansion 
due to the change in temperature. 

Water also makes the rock particles finer. After rains 
the flowing of water grinds the fragments together. The 
force of running water is continually wearing them smaller 
(Fig. 256). Th(! fin(;st particles arc; first carrienl away by the 
water to valleys below (Figs. 2(j and 27). 




Fia. 27. — A rocky liill <li;iri(!;iri« inlo soil. Tlir. .i<;ii is Knidually rarrieil to the valley 
by ruins and ii.uuiitaiii streaius. (I'lant IiiduslryJ 

Water in the form of glacial ice, carrying sand and boul- 
ders frozen into the under side, wears down the rocks over 
which it passes and carries the material with it (Fig. 28). 

The effects of plants in the rotting of rocks are of two 
kinds: (1) The roots grow into the crevices found in rocks. 
This in time forces the rock particles apart (Fig. 29). 
Roots of trees often lift large rocks and cause them to crack 
by their own weight. This aids the rocks to crumble into 
soil grains. (2) When the plants decay acids are formed. 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 



49 



that help the water to soften or dissolve the rocks. Every 
one has seen rocks covered with Hchens and mosses. When 
these are taken away one can often see where the rocks 
have been eaten into by the small plants, due to the action 
described. As this process of growth and decay continues for 
ages, the soil is gradually improved until it will produce 
plants useful to man. 







Fig. 28. — View of Victoria glacier, .several miles in length. S, mountain snow; 
D, dirt and broken rock carried by tlie moving snow and ice; L, broken rock where 
the moving glacier nibs the l)ank or .side of tlie valley; C, central line of tlirt and 
Itjcks brought- by (he edges of two moving streams of ice antl snow; T, terminus or 
end of the glacier where the sun mehi the snow and leaves the rock and soil. The 
finest soil is carried by running water to the broad field farther down the valley. 



How Animals Help. — Burrowing animals, such as the 
ground squirrel and the prairie dog, earthworms and insects 
living in the grountl, as well as rabbits, gophers, and wolves, 
aid in preparing the soil for the growth of plants. They 
often burrow deep into the ground; the openings aid in free 
movement of air and water, and roots can enter the soil more 



50 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



easily. The animals also drag into their homes nesting mate- 
rials and other vegetable matter. When this decays it aids 
in forming fertile soil. 

How Soils are Moved. — The same forces that form soil 
also carry it away. Soil is almost constantly moving from 
high lands to low lands. It is deepest in the valley, and 
thinnest at the top of the hill. Great furrows are formed in 

th3 hillsides after heavy rains. 
The swollen and muddy 
streams carry the soil to lower 
parts of the land. When 
rivers overflow, they always 
leave a deposit of soil which 
was carried by the water. 

Transported soil is any soil 
moved from the place where it 
was formed. It is described 
by different names or terms, 
depending on the means by 
which it was transported; and 
these different means of trans- 
]iortation leave the soil in very 
different condition as regards 
its general nature and appear- 
ance and use for growing crops. 
Go out into a plowed field 
after a heavy rain and see 
where little gulleys have been worn. Follow one of these 
and see how much soil was carried by the water that ran 
off. Notice the size of the particles that w^ere carried. 

Soil deposited by water is called alluvial. It is found 
in valleys and river-beds, beds of old lakes, ponds and 
marshes. (Fig. 26.) 

Soil deposited from ice is called drift soil. It has been 
formed by the action of glaciers, which are large bodies of 



l^^g^ *V^'^^ 


a^^iM 




^^^H 


^ •' ^'v^ 


|gP^H[ 




>^^^HP&^'^"''>Sk^9p 




^^^^^B^i^^^^'tj'iv-^Rw^ 




HVS 




HH^ ^^^ 




>C X 


^^^^^^^^^^^r 


fi^ 



Fig. 29 . — A large roek split by t he 
growth of a tree near Lansing, Mich. 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 51 

ice moving like rivers, carrying quantities of earth and 
rocks. The results of ancient glacial action are found in 
many places. Rocks with deep scratches show the wearing 
and grinding effects of the moving masses of ice. Drift or 
glacial soil is easily recognized by the presence of rounded 
rocks or boulders. It is usually fertile because of the variety 
of mineral substances brought from far and near. Much 
drift soil is found throughout the northern states and Canada, 
east of the Rocky Mountains. 

Two other kinds of transported soil should be studied. 
One, known as colluvial soil, occurs on mountain slopes and 
steep hillsides, and is the mixed mass of soil and rocks brought 
down by avalanches and landslides. Such soil is not generally 
in condition to grow good crops. The other, known as wind- 
drifted or aeolian soil, is found in arid or semi-arid regions, 
that is, in places where there is very little rain-fall and the 
soil is dry, and there is little vegetation to hold the soil. 
This soil is carried by the winds and is deposited in dunes 
or drifts like snow. These dunes sometimes cover cultivated 
fields, forests, and even villages. As this soil is shifting, 
plants frequently do not have an opportunity to grow and 
hold it. (Fig. 24.) 

REVIEW. 

1. What is soil? 

2. From v/hat is soil made ? 

3. Name four forces wliich are making soil. 

4. How does the air help to make soil ? 

5. Tell of the influences of temperature in crumbling rocks. 

6. Tell of the ways in which water helps to crumble rocks. 

7. Tell where and when you have seen running water carrying 
fine soil or mud. 

8. In what kinds of places is this mud deposited ? 

9. Do plants help to form soil ? How ? 

10. In what ways do animals help to make soil useful ? 

1 1 . What is transported soil ? 

12. Describe the several kinds, and tell where they are likely to be 
found. 

Reference. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins : 421, Control of Blowing 
Soils. 



52 PRODUCTIVE FAR^HNG 



CHAPTER V. 
KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 

Soils used in the production of crops are of many kinds. 
Some of these differ widely from each other in their physical 
nature and in their abihty to produce good return to the 
owner. It is the purpose of this chapter to point out the 
characteristics of the most important types of soil. 

Kinds of Soil. — Soil may be divided into four natural 
classes — sandy, loamy, clayey, and peaty — according to the 
proportion of sand, clay, and vegetable matter which it con- 
tains. Between these groups or classes we may have very 
many others, depending on the combinations of these types 
and the sizes of the soil particles. 

A loam is a soil intermediate between sand and clay. 

A marly soil is a combination of clay and fine lime mate- 
rial. 

Silt is a soil whose particles are slightly larger than clay 
particles but finer than sand. 

We should mention also limestone soils. These result from 
the crumbling of limestone (Fig. 30). 

Sandy Soil.— Sand is formed from sandstone. It does 
not produce large crops, for it is poor in plant-food and 
moisture. A soil made of sand only would need to be changed 
a great deal to be of any use in farming, as it would produce 
no crops in its natural condition. Soil with much sand in it 
is light and open and allows the entrance of air, and it can 
absorb and hold little moisture. Sandy soil is so loosely 
held together that water and air pass through it readily. 
Crops on such land become parched if the weather is hot 
and dry. 

This type of soil dries quickly even when the season 
is wet. Then large crops may be grown better on sandy soil 



jaNDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 53 



than on clay, if enough plant food is provided. Compact 
and sticky soils produce poor crops in wet seasons. The 
farmer finds it easy to plow and cultivate a sandy field. It 
is adapted to quick-growing crops, such as early vegetables; 
and sweet potatoes do well on such a soil. It may be culti- 
vated without injury when wet. When it lies over clay 
under-soil or subsoil it may have a high degree of fertility. 




Fig. 30. — Peach trees in rocky soil. After the soil is plowed, the rains soon wash 
the fine soil away through the top of the rocks and leave the surface as shown in the 
picture. The roots of trees are in the finer parts of the soil and the growth is good. 
(Experiment Station, N. J.) 

Clay Soil. — Clay soil is much more finely divided than 
sand. When wet it is plastic and sticky. The latter property 
makes it useful for making bricks and tiles. Some farm soils 
are largely clay; but clay alone does not make a good farm 
soil and its plant-food is not readily available. 

Soil composed of as much as forty per cent of clay may 
be good farm soil, and may be well adapted to the growth 
of grains and grasses. It should not have over fifty per cent 
of clay present. The finely divided particles of clay adhere 



54 PHODUCTIVE FARMING 

so closely as to make the access and circulation of air, heat, 
and moisture difficult; the soil is, therefore, cold and heavy. 
It is hard to work, and, unless well drained, crops are likely 
to suffer both in wet and in dry seasons; in wet seasons 
because the moisture and air do not pass through it readily 
and the surplus water docs not drain away, and in dry sea- 
sons because the land becomes so hard as to prevent the 
growth of roots, and the small amount of moisture in the 
soil is not available to plants because it does not readily 
circulate. 

Clay and Sandy Soil Compared. — Clay soil is almost the 
opposite of sandy soil, in many respects. Grains and larger 
masses of sand do not stick together; if wet and moulded in 
the hand, they will soon fall apart. Clay may be moulded 
into any shape, and is sometimes used for making pottery 
because the particles stick together when moist. Sand, 
being open and porous, quickly loses moisture and plant- 
food. Clay is so compact that it retains moisture and plant- 
food. Sand admits heated air and soon becomes dry and 
warm ; clay admits air more slowly and remains wet and cold. 
Because of these differences which make sandy soil easy to 
work and clay soil hard to work, sandy soil is said to be light 
and clay soil heavy, while in weight a quart cup full of sandy 
soil is really heavier than the same amount of clay soil. 
Both are valuable farm soils when supplied with enough 
plant-food and vegetable mould, or humus. 

Exercise. — To Show the Difference between Sand and 
Clay. — Use rather pure sand and pure clay. Make a wet 
ball of each the size of a hen's egg. Place the two wet masses 
on a board to dry. When dry, examine and note the dif- 
ferences. Which ball dried more quickly? Which is harder 
to work when dry? 

Exercise. — To Compare the Water-holding Power of 
Sand, Clay, and Loam. — In three boxes about the size of 
cigar boxes place respectively some sand, clay, and black 



KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 55 

loam, which we have learned is intermediate between sand 
and clay. Wet all of them equally. Place the boxes in the 
free air or sun and allow them to dry. Which soil loses its 
moisture first? Which last? 

Peat or vegetable matter makes up a large part of some 
soils, particularly in low places. The vegetable matter may 
be more or less decayed, and is often called peat. It is found 
in bogs and marshes and other wet places. When the peat 
has nearly all decomposed it is called muck. If peat and muck 
soils are well drained and are supplied with enough lime, they 
are very productive. They are often used for such market- 
garden crops as cabbage, onions, celery, and cauliflower. 

Humus. — Partly decayed vegetable matter in soil i« called 
humus. It has a blackish color. In newly cleared farm soil 
it is derived from the dead roots and leaves of a former vege- 
tation. Leaf mould found in forests is largely humus. On 
farms it is secured by plowing under waste materials such as 
weeds, stubble, roots, vines, and leaves. Farm manure is 
valuable for this purpose. Special crops are often grown to 
be plowed under, and when so used are called green manure. 
When these rot in the soil, humus is formed. 

Humus is very useful in all soils. It improves a sandy 
soil because it increases its power to take and hold moisture, 
supplies it with plant-food, and thus increases its productiv- 
ity. It will absorb and retain more moisture than any other 
part of the soil. It improves clay soil by loosening it, thus 
helping the circulation of air and moisture. It is less likely 
to clod and crust. Humus is the main immediate source of 
nitrogen, so necessary in the growth of all farm crops. In 
the formation of humus other plant-foods are set free, — but 
best of all is its improvement of the structure or texture of 
the soil, resulting in better drainage, better ventilation, and 
deeper root growth. 

Lime in Soil. — When lime is found in soil it is usually in 
the form of particles of limestone or marble, but it may be 
5 



56 PRODUCTWE FARMING 

in solution in the soil water. It is a valuable substance in 
soil. It furnishes the important plant-food, calcium. Lime- 
stone crumbles or dissolves easily and helps to make avail- 
able other plant-foods in the soil. The lime aids in the decay 
of vegetable matter and in the formation of nitrates from 
decaying vegetable matter. It improves the physical con- 
dition of soil ; its presence helps to make heavy clay soil loose 
and more easily worked and to facilitate the passage of 
water and air through it. In small quantities it improves 
sandy soil by causing the particles to adhere more closely to 
each other, and consequently, to hold moisture better. It 
prevents harm from acids and certain other poisonous com- 
pounds in soil. It lessens the injury from certain plant 
diseases that are transmitted through the soil. Soil contain- 
ing an abundance of lime is usually of good character. It is 
easy to work and should be well adapted to grains and fruits. 

While lime is very valuable in the soil, i\ is possible for 
it to become harmful. Too much of it in sandy soil or grav- 
elly soil is more harmful than in clay soils. It may cause 
other plant-foods to be liberated faster than they can be 
used by the crop, and they will be wasted. It may cause the 
vegetable matter or humus to decay too fast; it may reduce 
the yield of certain crops, as cranberries, and watermelons 
which prefer acid soil. 

A loam is a soil consisting of a mixture of sand and clay 
and containing humus. If two-thirds of the mixture is sand 
it is called a sandy loam. If one-half of the soil is clay it is 
called a heavy clay loam. Soils between these two extremes 
are called loams or medium loams. When gravel or coarse 
sand and lime are present in considerable amounts, we have 
gravelly or limy loam. Loam soil is the best for most farm 
purposes. Sand, clay, and humus are improved as they 
become mixed together. 

Medium loams are the best soils for farming if there is 
a lacge amount of humus present. The farmer says, "they 



KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 57 

work up well." They are usually not too wet nor too dry. 
They do not bake and crack so badly as the heavy clay soils 
do. Clods are less likely to form. They hold moisture better 
than light sandy soils. Corn, cotton, potatoes, fruits, vege- 
tables, grains, and grasses all do well on the medium loams. 
Texture of Soil.^ — The texture of soil is determined by the 
size and shape of the particles of which it is composed and 
the way in which these particles are grouped in kernels or 
crumbs or larger masses. The texture determines to a large 




Fia. 31. — Soils of different texture. The coarse or open texture may be improved 
by tillage and by packing with roller or planker. 



extent the agricultural value of soil (Fig. 31). It is a fac- 
tor to consider when studying the composition of soil, as it 
determines largely the capacity of soil to retain such foods as 
may become available for plants. 

Soil such as sand is open in texture and freely admits 
water, which quickly passes downward, carrying soil fertil- 
ity with it. Open soil is more likely to lose its plant food 
than a soil that is fairly close in texture. Clay loams, in re- 
taining water, also retain their plant-food better. We call 
them close in texture. An open texture also allows too rapid 
decay of vegetable matter. On the other hand, a very com- 
pact soil such as clay is undesirable. When there is rain it 
puddles, and neither air nor water can enter and circulate. 



58 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

When it dries it becomes very hard and unworkable. A good 
farm soil should be between these two conditions, — open 
enough to permit the proper entrance and movement of air 
and water, and yet compact enough to prevent the washing 
out of plant-food. 

Farm Soil. — The best farm soil does not belong strictly 
to any of these classes already described, but is one which is 
a mixture of sand, clay, and humus in certain proportions. 
With reference to the proportions of sand and clay present, 
the useful farm and garden soils may be divided into three 
general classes, — sandy loam, medium loam, and clay loam 

(Fig. 31). A perfect soil is 
^^^^^^i^^^ one whose physical nature 

and chemical composition 
make it best adapted for 
the purpose or crop in- 
tended. It contains just 
enough sand to enable it to 

Fig. 32. — A subsoil plow has a long i i • ^ • , 

shank. It is used in the bottom of furrows absorb air and moisturc m 

behind a turning plow where the subsoil , 

is too compact. It stirs the subsoil but propCr amOUUtS and tO 

does not bring it to the surface. i • ■ i -i 

make it warm and easily 
worked. It contains enough clay to keep it from getting too 
warm and to prevent too rapid loss of water. Lime must 
be present to perform its several duties. Humus is there to 
control the amounts of moisture and air, to furnish nitrogen, 
and to help produce valuable chemical changes in the soil. 
There are a few other conditions necessary to provide suffi- 
cient plant-food. 

Perfect soils are hard to find. They are also hard to make 
in any of the known ways of soil- improvement. We usually 
can make slight improvements in the soil found in nature. 
Since this is true we must select crops for the farm which are 
best adapted to the soil found there. 

The subsoil lies under the soil, which generally occupies 
the surface six to twelve inches. There are several differ- 




Kinds of soils— their characteristics 5s 



Alices between soil and subsoil: The soil is usually darker 
in color because it contains more organic or vegetable matter. 
It is more easily worked and less compact than the subsoil 
(Fig. 32). Air and moisture usually circulate in the surface 
soil better, and its plant-food is more available. The subsoil 
serves as a storehouse for moisture and with some plants is 
penetrated by the roots. Its character materially affects 
the crops grown on the soil. When the underlying rocks 
have rotted they make the subsoil. When the subsoils have 
rotted they are more of the nature of the surface soil. 




Fig. 33. — Teachers and students taking son samples and studying soil. 
(Agricultural Education.) 

Names of Soils. — In the following list the soils are ar- 
ranged with reference to the fine and coarse particles they 
contain: Clay, heavy clay loam, clay loam, loam, sandy 
loam, light sandy loam, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, 
gravel. 

The list omits peat and other organic matter. If humus 
is present in these they are usually of a dark color or black 
T.ime also darkens the color of soils in presence of vegetable 
matter. Otherwise the color will vary a great deaL 



60 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Exercise. — To Show Kinds of Soil and Subsoil. — Have 
pupils bring to school in small boxes or tin cans samples of 
different kinds of soil and subsoil of the neighborhood 
(Fig. 33). The pupils should classify and name these. 
Much benefit may come by discussing the relative value 
of these types of soil and subsoil. 

REVIEW. 

1 . Name as many different kinds of soil as you can. 

2. How many of these have you seen? Where? 

?. What kind of rock forms sand when crumbled ? 

4. In what ways is clay soil better than sandy soil ? 

5. In what ways is sandy soil better than clay soil ? 

6. Name several ways in which lime or hmy substances are help- 
ful to soil. 

7. What is humus? 

8. How does humus improve sandy soil? How does it improve 
clay soil ? 

9. Describe a good farm soil. 

10. How may the subsoil differ from the surface soil ? 

References. — Physical Geographies will be helpful in the further 
study of the topics taken up in the chapters on Soils. Let the most 
advanced pupils in the class read the chapters on soil movement in a 
good Physical Geography and report to the class. 



CHAPTER VI. 
SOIL MOISTURE. 



Water in Soils. — Many soils contain too much or too 
little water. The water in soils may be in three conditions: 
(a) Free water, or that which would flow into a hole dug for 
a post or telephone pole. (6) Capillary water, or that which 
tends to fill the small spaces between fine particles of soil, 
as the oil of a lamp fills the spaces in the wick above the free 
oil in the lamp. This is called also coarse film or simply film 
moisture, (c) Fine film water, or that which clings to the 
surface of each small bit of soil even when it is as dry as road 
dust. This is called also hygroscopic moisture. If too much 



SOIL MOISTURE 61 

water is present, proper drainage may help; if too little, by 
adding water or by adding vegetable matter and barn manure, 
to aid the soil in retaining water, the crops will be improved. 
Soils with good texture are seldom too wet or too dry. The 
average rainfall of a certain region may be enough, but the 
best growth is impossible if the rain is not well distributed 
through the growing season. 

Exercise. — Three Conditions of Water in Soils. — Fill 
a glass jar or drinking glass with some fine sand or other 
loose soil and pour in water until half full of free water. 
Above the free water the soil wi 11 become wet with capillary 
water. By stirring the top soil it will become dust like or 
some dust may be spread on top. The dust, though perfectly 
dry in appearance, is supplied with fine film water. 

Just after heavy rainfalls the free water is close to the 
surface, and falls lower at drier times. 

Capillary Moisture. — Capillary water clings to the sur- 
faces of the soil particles and cannot be seen as free water can. 
When a soil has all the capillary water it will hold, its presence 
can be felt with the fingers. The color is darker than the 
same soil when dried in the air. 

Take a pound of soil fresh from the garden and spread it 
out on a paper to dry. The next day weigh it and determine 
how much capillary moisture it has lost. 

Fine Film or Hygroscopic Moisture. — Dry dust from a 
road contains a very fine film of moisture on each soil grain. 
This is too fine to be seen. Put some road dust in the bottom 
of a glass tube or vial and heat it gently. Moisture will be 
seen collecting in the top of the tube. This was held in the 
form of fine films on the soil grains before they were heated. 

Capillary Moisture Most Useful. — The roots of plants 
take up capillary moisture. This in turn is supplied from 
the bed of free water deeper in the soil. Farm crops cannot 
make direct use of free water. Plants need air in the soil 
about the roots. Free water would exclude the soil-air, and 



62 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

also prevent the rise of temperature. Fine film moisture 
probably does not aid plants in their growth, but will help 
to maintain life at the time of great drought. Slow-growing 
plants, such as those found in deserts, may be kept alive by 
the presence of fine film moisture. 

Soil Moisture Used by Plants. — Plants use moisture 
while growing. One ton of a dry corn crop may use up 300 
to 600 tons of soil moisture during its growth. The moisture 
while in the soil dissolves plant-food which it finds there. 
The plants take up this food in the water they drink through 
the roots. This all passes up to the leaves of the plant and 
the surplus water is lost by evaporation into the air. 

How Capillary Moisture Moves. — When grains of soil 
are wet with capillary moisture, each grain is covered all 
over with a thin layer of water. Deep dowTi in the soil near 
where the free water is found the layers of water around the 
grains are quite thick. Higher up, the films are less thick. 
The films about the grains are as thin as the films of soap 
bubbles. The grains next to the air become as dry as the 
air itself. 

But the moisture is constantly moving from the lower 
depths toward the surface. The power by which this move- 
ment takes place is called capillary action. It is in the same 
way that oil will rise in the wick of a lamp. 

The moisture moves upward in fine-grained soils such as 
clay more readily than in coarse sand. The openings be- 
tween soil grains are called 'pore spaceft. If these are rather 
large the capillary movement of water is slow. Packing the 
soil grains closer together, as with a roller, will greatly in- 
crease the rise of water in the soil. This is often done when 
small grain or grass seeds are sowti, to hasten the sprouting 
of the seeds. 

Water Holding Power of Soils. — One hundred pounds of 
each of the following soils, when saturated, held the following 
amounts of water in capillary form: 



SOIL MOISTURE 63 

Sand held 25 pounds moisture 

Heavy clay held 50 pounds moisture 

Cultivated loam held 52 pounds moisture 

Black garden loam held 81 pounds moisture 

Humus held 190 pounds moisture 

Exercise. — Absorbing Rainfall. — Arrange an apparatus 
as shown in Fig. 34. Use gravel, sand, loam, clay, and peat, 
or other soils of the region. Pour water on all of these, 
keeping the soil covered. With watch or clock note time 
required in each case for the water to begin dripping through 




Fig. 34. — Apparatu.s to show the rate of taking in rain water by five different 
soils. Cloth tied around the mouth of the bottles prevents the soil from wasiiing 
through. (Agricultural Education.) 



into the glass below. Which kind of soil will take in rainfall 
most rapidly? Which has the closest texture? What 
becomes of most of the rain water falling on a compact soil 
during a heavy rain? 

Exercise. — To Illustrate Capillarity. — Place one end of 
an old loose cloth in a cup of water and leave the other end 
outside. In a short time the whole cloth may become wet 
by capillarity. The water moves along in the fine meshes 
of cloth. Oil is drawn up in a lamp through the wick by the 
force of capillarity. 



64 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Exercise. — To Show Capillarity in Soils. — Tie cloth 
over the large ends of lamp chimneys and fill with different 
kinds of dry soils, as shown in Fig. 35. Set them in a dish 
of water. The water will rise in the soils by capillarity. It 
will rise much higher in the finer soils such as clay and loam. 
Moisture rises quickly but not so high in coarse land. 

Increasing Soil Moisture. — Since humus holds so much 
capillary water, the farmer has one sure way to increase the 
water-holding power of any soil. The addition of green 
manure and barn manure will cause humus to form in the 
soil. Large quantities of humus will hold more moisture in 




Fig. 35.— Water rises more rapidly by capillarity through fine soiIb 
than in coarse soil. 



the capillary form and thus encourage the growth of larger 
crops. Deep plowing will increase the depth of the water 
reservoir. Harrowing and cultivating will help, because 
the more a soil is stirred the less water it will lose by evapo- 
ration. Furthermore, rains sink into a loose surface better 
than into a hard compact one. Underdrainage of soils will 
increase this power to hold capillary moisture, because the 
volume of soil above the free water level is made greater. 

How to Save Soil Moisture. — Spaces between soil grains 
serve as very crooked small tubes to conduct the lower soil 
water toward the surface. Harrowing and cultivating the 



SOIL MOISTURE 



65 



surface of the soil will break the connection of the spaces or 
pores with each other. If this capillary connection is broken 
near the surface the moisture will be checked in its upward 
movement and be held near the roots. 

The covering of fine soil produced by a harrow or culti- 
vator is called a dust mulch or fine soil mulch (Figs. 36a and 6). 
The chief purpose of the dust mulch is to save moisture. Aa 
growing plants use a very large amount of water, it is wise 
for the farmer to keep a fine soil mulch on the fields all the 




Fig. 3Ga— a ten-shovel sulky cultivator. Thi3 form of machine leaves a fine 
Boil surface which helps to save moisture. 

Fig. 36b. — A one-horse walking cultivator with many small shovels and a smooth 
rake behind. The fine soil mulch produced is the best means of preventing evapora- 
tion of the moisture. 

growing season. If the tubes and pores through which the 
water passes are undisturbed the water will escape rapidly 
into the air. If, on the other hand, these tubes are broken 
by tillage, evaporation is checked. 

Exercise. — Effect of Mulch. — ^When the ground is dry 
place an old cloth or carpet or a bunch of hay on the ground. 
In a day or so the ground under this mulch will become 
moist by drawing water up from beneath, while the ground 
around the mulch may remain quite dry. A covering of 



66 



PRODUCTIVE FARlVriNG 



fine soil made with a rake, called a dust mulch, will have 
the same effect in keeping garden soils moist during dry 







Fig. 37. — Ppike tooth<xi hnrrow, profliinnK a fhi^t tmilrli in ;i peach orchard- 

(.Eiperiuieut fetution, >.'. J.J 

weather. A dust mulch can be made with a fine-toothed 
harrow or weeder over a large field very rapidly (Fig. 37). 

REVIEW. 

1. Name the three forms of water in soils. 

2. Which form is most useful to growing plants? 

3. How can we determine the amount of capillary water in a soil 
sample? 

4. How does free water in soil help the farmer? 

5. Under what circumstances is the free water harmful? 

6. What becomes of the moisture taken up by a growing crop? 

7. Describe the movement ol capillary moisture in soils? 

8. What are pore spaces in soils? 

9. What kinds of soil have the largest pores? 

10. In what soils is the capillary movement of moisture most rapid ( 
What is the effect of rolling the loose soils? 

11. What soils hold the most capillary moisture? 

12. What kind holds the least? 

13. Suppose humus soil and sandy soil were mixed, what would be 
the effect on their moisture-holding powers? 

14. What is a dust mulch? How made? 

15. What is the effect of a dust mulch? 



Reference. — Dry Farming, by Widtsoe. 



LAND DRAINAGE 67 

CHAPTER VII. 
LAND DRAINAGE. 

All good farm land should be well drained. In some 
cases it is naturally drained because of the loose or open 
character of the subsoil. In other places we find the sur- 
face so sloping that much of the rainfall is carried away on 
the surface or near the surface. There are special cases 
where some form of artificial drain should be used. 

What Drainage Does. — In soils where water stands too 
close to the surface, drainage will help in several ways. We, 
therefore, use draining ditches or drain pipes for the 
following reasons: 

L To remove surplus water. 

2. To admit air to soil and roots. 

3. To deepen feeding area for roots. 

4. To reduce suffering at time of drought. 

5. To aid tillage. 

6. To increase chemical action. 

7. To raise the soil temperature. 

Soil which has been well drained is improved, not only 
by the removal of water from it, but because the more rapid 
passage of water through the soil carries the air and warmth 
to lower levels, which are important factors in making plant- 
food soluble, and thus increasing the power of plants to 
secure food. 

On too many farms we find half-developed crops grown 
year after year upon land which would be able the yield lai'ge 
returns if properly drained. 

Methods of Drainage. — There are two general methods of 
draining land: first, by open ditches, which may have either 
straight banks or sloping banks; second, by underdrains or 



68 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



covered drains, which may be composed either of tile (Fig. 
38) or of broken stone, gravel, boulders, etc. Surface or 
open ditches are cheaper to start with, but are not so good 
as others. They do not give as good results, and are in 
the way. 

Effect on Roots. — Deep drainage increases the room for 
plant-roots. The roots of most farm crops will not gro^^v 
down into any free water which may be standing in the sub- 
soil. If drains carry away such water the roots may go into 
the deeper soil to get plant-food (Fig. 39, D). 




Fig. 38. — Ready to lay the six-inch drain tiles. 



This reduces suffering at time of drought, because the 
roots are then so deep in the soil that the drying of the 
surface does not harm them. They get their moisture from 
lower depths and from a larger volume of soil. 

On the other hand, if the free water is allowed to remain 
near the surface during the spring of the year (Fig. 39, F), 
very shallow root systems are formed. Later, in July, when 
a drought comes, the free water settles to a great depth too 
quickly for the roots to follow. The shallow roots are then 
surrounded by the dry soil near the surface and growth is 
stopped (Fig. 39, W). 



LAND DRAINAGE 



69 



How Drainage Warms the Soil. — Drainage lowers the 
water in soils. As the water goes downward, the air from 
above is drawn into the soil. In warm weather the air will 
thus warm the soil, increase chemical action, and aid in tbe 
groAvth of soil bacteria. Plant growth is thus hastened. 

Drains Ventilate the Soil. — This not only warms the soil 
but also gives it the necessary oxygen and removes the 
harmful gases. 




j: 



V \ ^- 




Fig. 39. — Drainage deepens the feeding area for roots and reduces the suffer- 
ing at time of drought. The view at the left shows free water just under the roots. 
When drought comes the roots are left so near the surface as to let them dry very 
badly. See centre view. The view at the right shows the deep root system 
allowed by tile-drainage. 



Where Drainage is Needed. — There are several kinds 
of places where it would be wise to put in artificial drains 
of some kind: — 

1. Flat lands which are too wet because of the overflow 
of streams at time of heavy floods. 

2. Bogs and marsh lands which hold the free water too 
near the surface most of the summer season. 

3. Large, flat areas having clay subsoils. 

4. Depressions in hillsides which hold the water coming 
from the land above. 

5. Fields which are to be flooded at certain times for 
special crops, such as rice and cranberries. 

Principles of Underdrainage. — The value of under- 
drains depends upon the free passage of water through them. 



70 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



They should always lead to the lowest portion of the field. 
They must be gradually sloped to secure an even flow of 
water in them. A fall of two feet in one thousand will be 
enough for the flow of water if the tile pipes are laid care- 
fully. The main drain should always occupy the lowest 
part of the field, and the others may lead the water to the 
main. 




Fig. 40. — Laying drain ti]es and testing the depth by tneasurpment from level 

grade stakes. 



The distance of drains from each other and the depth 
below the surface are governed by the character of the land. 
On light, open soils, they should be deeper and farther apart; 
on heavy land they should be nearer to the surface and closer 
together. The mouth of the drain should be well protected, 
and kept free and open. 

Drain Tile. — The best underdrains are made by laying 
drain tile pipes in the bottom of the ditches. These are 
then covered with soil. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 71 

The tile pipes should be very strong and hard, so they 
mil not rot in the soil. They should be smooth inside to 
avoid clogging. The ends should be clean cut so they will 
fit together closely. A very common length for each piece 
is twelve inches, but sometimes they are longer than this. 

The joints are open but are usually covered with sods, 
rocks, broken tile or other material to help keep out the fine 
soil. Sections of drain pipe are placed as close together as 
possible and the openings are very small (Fig. 40). 

Water enters drain-pipes at the joints. The pipes carry 
away only the free water and the capillary moisture is left 
in the soil for the use of plants. If the pipes should lead 
through a drier soil, the water would there flow from the 
pipes into the soil. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give several ways in which drainage may help the soil. 

2. Give two methods of draining land. 

3. How does drainage warm the soil in the spring? 

4. How does drainage reduce suffering at time of drought? 

5. Give five kinds of places where drainage is needed. 

6. Give several points to be observed in making underdrains. 

7. What does distance between lines of tile depend upon? 

8. What things help to determine the depth at which to lay drain 
tiles? 

9. Describe good drain tiles. 

10. How does water enter a Une of tile? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 524, Tile Drainage on the 
Farm; 698, Trenching Machinery for Tile Drains. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT. 

The farmer should do what he can to improve soils, as 
natural causes work too slowly. The depletion of a poor 
soil may be due to the natural causes. Fields that are on 
hillsides may be badly washed and gullied by running water 



72 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



from rains. Such bad effects can usually be remedied by the 
application of practical methods. The aim should be to 
bring the soil into suitable condition for the production of 
large crops. 

Kinds of Improvement. — The improvement may be in 
several regards: 

1. In its physical condition. 

2. In its chemical make-up and food-yielding power. 

3. In its moisture-holding power. 

4. In its germ life or bacteria. 




Fio. 41. — Plowing under a crop of green manure to add humus to the soil. 



Tillage is one of the commonest ways to put soil in proper 
physical condition to yield good crops. There are two main 
types of tillage: Deep tillage, as with a plow (Fig. 41), and 
shallow tillage, as with harrows and cultivators (Figs. 37 
and 42). 

Objects of Plowing. — The primary object of plowing a 
field is to make a good seed bed by crumbling the soil and 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 



73 



making it fine. As the furrow slice slides along the curved 
surface of a polished mouldboard, the particles are caused to 
slide upon each other. Take the leaves of a book between 
your thumb and finger when the edges are nearly even. 
Bend them, and see that they all slide a little and the edges 
are no longer even. Thus, in plowing, the particles of soil 
tend to shde upon each other 
and the crumbling is accom- ? 
phshed. Other objects of 
plowing include: 

1. The covering of wild 
plants and burying of stub- 
ble, stalks, vines, and other 
wastes. 

2. The unlocking of plant- 
food in the soil by exposing 
the particles to new condi- 
tions of heat, light, moisture, 
and air. 

3. The deepening of the 
water reservoir and making 
the moisture conditions more 
perfect, 

4. Loosening of the soil to 
allow of better shallow tillage. 

Plowing not only pulverizes and loosens the soil; it may 
also warm and dry wet soil; it may deepen the surface soil 
and increase the feeding area for roots; it admits air and 
increases the weathering; it deepens the water reservoir. 

Plows. — Walking plows are best for rough and stony 
fields. Riding plows have wheels, and are called sulky 
plows. These are much more common in sections where 
the fields are large, level, and free from stones and stumps. 

Gang plows are those which have two or more plows 
attached to the same frame and turn several furrows at a 




Fig. 42. — Cultivating young peach 
trees. Frequent tillage makes the soil 
yield its fertility to growing plants. 
(Experiment Station, N. J.) 



74 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

time (Fig. 43). The two-plow gang is usually drawn by 
horse power, but larger gangs are frequently drawn by steam 
or gasoline traction engines. 

Forms of Mouldboards. — Plows have three main forms 
of mouldboards, suited to the different purposes of the farm. 

The mouldboard for turning over sod is long from the 
front point to the rear, is very oblique, and has a very slight 
curve. The rear of the mouldboard turns the slice more 
nearly upside down than the other forms. 

The mouldboard for stubble ground is extremely different 
from that of the sod plow, being very short, steep, and much 
curved. It bends the furrow slice abruptly and causes it 
to crumble, leaving it somewhat on edge. 




Fig. 43. — Modern gang plow, turning two furrows at a time. 

The general purpose mouldboard is medium in form 
between the other two extremes, and is useful where much 
litter and manure are to be plowed^under. 

Fall Plowing. — When a field is plowed in the fall it gives 
more time for the rotting of barnyard manure and other 
forms of vegetable matter turned under by the plow. The 
farmer usually has more time in the fall, and the plows may 
be kept going until the soil is frozen. Heavj^ soils plowed in 
the fall are greatly improved and made mellow bj- alternate 
freezing and thawing during winter. Many forms of inju- 
rious insects are destro^'ed in the upturned soil during the 
winter. The moisture conditions are better and the crops 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 75 

will suffer less from drought than if the soil were not plowed 
until late spring. 

There is one strong argument against late fall plowing: 
It prevents the growth of a winter cover crop on the field. 
The very light soils are greatly benefited by winter cover 
crops. In regions where the climate is dry, winter cover 
crops are used to prevent the blowing of soils. In hilly 
regions where heavy winter rains are common, cover crops 
are necessary to prevent washing or erosion. 

Depth of Plowing. — For most crops deep plowing gives 
better results than shallow plowing. A very good general 
rule for humid climates would be to always plow the soil 
as deep as the dark surface soil, being careful to not bring 
too much of the subsoil to the surface. When vegetable 
matter is plowed under each year, the plowing can extend 
to a greater depth each time. 

Shallow tillage includes the cultivating and harrowing of 
soils. There are several objects in view — the preparation 
of a seed bed, the killing of weeds, and the saving of moisture. 
(Figs. 36a and b, 37 and 42.) 

Preventing Weeds. — Before crops are planted in the 
spring, the soil should be so frequently tilled as to prevent 
the starting of weeds; that is, to kill the little sprouts before 
they show above ground. On fields of corn, potatoes, cotton, 
and other crops in rows, the tillage should also be very 
frequent and shallow — thus killing the little sprouts of weeds 
and checking the loss of soil moisture. If weeds are allowed 
to grow they take from the soil quite as much plant-food and 
moisture as the cultivated plants. 

Green Crops as Manures. — Crops are frequently grown 
with the intention of turning them under before they become 
mature. Such are called green manures. They add vegetable 
matter to the soil in a form to decay quickly. This produces 
humus and liberates considerable plant-food in a form ready 
for crops to use. Both physical and chemical benefits thus 



76 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

arise from the use of green manures. Red and crimson 
clover, cow peas, vetch, rye, and buckwheat are commonly 
used as green manures, but any other crops may be grown 
for this purpose. Those plants which belong to the legume, 
or clover, family are among the best for this purpose, because 
they gather nitrogen from the air and leave it available for 
the use of other crops. The benefits of this family of plants 
will be discussed more fully in the chapters on Farm Crops 
and Alfalfa. 

Benefits Enumerated. — By the careful use of green 
mamu-es, soils may be benefited in several ways: 

1. Food is brought from great depths by the roots and 
when turned under is left near the surface. 

2. Such food is left in a form suitable for other plants 
to easily make use of it, because the green manure will decay 
quickly. 

3. The decaying matter becomes humus and has many 
beneficial effects, already studied. 

4. Chemical action in the soil is promoted. 

5. Small organisms, bacteria helpful to the soil, are 
multiplied more rapidly. 

Planning for Green Manures. — It requires some planning 
ahead to be most successful in securing crops suitable as 
green manures. Certain crops, such as rye and crimson 
clover, may be soAvn in the late summer or fall after the 
season's crop is off. These may be plowed under in the spring 
as green manure before the next season's crop is put in. Cow 
peas or buckwheat may be used to produce a good heavy 
green manure crop by letting it use the last half of the 
summer after a crop of small grain has been removed from 
the field. 

Care in Their Use. — When too heavy crops of rye or 
clover are plowed under at one time, there are apt to be bad 
results. This is chiefly due to the formation of acids in the 
soil which make it sour. Such bad effects are not noticed 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 77 

vv^hen there is plenty of lime in the soil. Lime should be 
applied to the soil when heavy crops are plowed under. 
Heavy applications of green manure also have a drying 
effect upon the soil, and there may then be more suffering 
at time of drought. 

Benefits of Lime. — In another chapter the character of 
limestone soils was discussed. (Pages 53-54.) It is a good 
practice to spread Ume on soils for certain crops just as 
fertilizer is applied. The benefits derived from the addition 
of lime to soils are here enumerated : 

It aids decay of vegetable matter. 

It helps liberate plant-foods in the soils. 

It hastens the growth of bacteria in the soil. 

The heavy clay soils are made more open, porous, and 
more easily tilled; moisture and air move more freely; the 
soil will then become warmer in early spring. 

The light sandy soils are made more compact, and hold 
moisture better. 

Lime acts upon acids in soils and destroys the sourness; 
this is a benefit for nearly all farm crops. 

It is a direct plant-food for alfalfa and some other mem- 
bers of the clover family. 

Exercise. — Slaking Lime. — Expose a small lump of 
burned lime, called quick-lime, on a board or paper, for a 
day or more until it crumbles to powder. This powder is 
then called air-slaked lime. A second lump of quick-lime 
may be placed in a dish and wet with a very little water 
from time to time until it heats and crumbles. When burned 
lime is used on soil, it should be air-slaked before spreading. 
A little water added to it will hasten the slaking. 

Exercise. — To Study Lime-xoater. — Slake some fresh 
lime the size of a baseball by pouring water over it very 
slowly until it crumbles. Then cover it well with water 
and stir. After it is allowed to settle, pour off the clear 
water Put in a strip of red litmus paper and note the result. 



78 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Put in a strip of blue litmus paper and see the result. Why 
is it not affected? Draw off a glassful of the lime-water 
and, after taking a deep breath and holding it for awhile, 
force the air from the lungs into it through a straw or tube. 
The milky color resulting shows that there is a union of the 
lime-water with the carbon dioxide in the breath, and a new 
substance is formed. If some of the clear lime-water is left 
open to the air for some time, a white crust will be formed 
on the top of it in the same way. 

Exercise. — To Show an Important Plant-food in Ashes. — 
Pour a few quarts of water into a pan of wood ashes and 
allow it to stand for fifteen minutes. Drain the water out 
through a loosely woven cloth. Examine the liquid to 
detect the lye or potash in it. It is soft and slippery to the 
touch. Place some red litmus paper in the Hquid. It will 
turn blue. This is because the potash is what we call an 
alkali. 

Exercise. — Wood Ashes and Sour Soil. — Bog soils are 
often sour and show an acid reaction with litmus paper. 
Make some soil sour by wetting it with vinegar. See if it 
turns litmus paper red. Then wet it with "lye water" 
obtained by letting wood ashes stand in a vessel of water. 
Test with litmus paper. This time it should change to blue. 
Sour (or acid) soils may be made "sweet" or neutral by 
spreading wood ashes on them. Fresh or well-stored wood 
ashes contain both potash and lime, which have several 
benefits besides correcting acidity of soils. 

Exercise. — Lime and Sour Soil. — Take a sample of sour 
soil which you have prepared as in the last exercise. Sweeten 
(or neutralize) it by the application of lime-water prepared 
by slaking lime in water. Lime is very helpful to bog soils 
and other soils too rich in humus. 

Barnyard Manure. — The use of barnyard manure on 
farm and garden soils is one of the best ways of improving 
them. Its benefits are of several kinds. It is a direct food 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 79 

for plants because of the three fertilizing elements which 
it contains, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These 
are the three elements of plant-food of greatest value to 
plants. Another benefit is from the vegetable matter con- 
tained in the manure, which is a great source of humus. 
This helps to put the soil into better physical condition and 
makes a better home for soil bacteria. The decay of the 
vegetable matter sets up certain chemical changes which 
are of benefit to the soils and crops. 

Value of Manure. — The value of barnyard manure 
depends on several conditions : 

The age and kind of animals. 

The kind and amount of feed they eat. 

The amount and kind of Utter or bedding used. 

The care of the manure after it is made. 

The age of the manure. 

When compared with the market prices of commercial 
fertilizers the average value of manure from the barn of a 
horse or mule in a year is estimated at $43; a cow, $38; 
a hog, $25; a sheep, $4. To get these values the manure 
must be used to the best advantage. 

When equal weights of manure are considered the values 
from the different kinds of farm stock would usually be in 
this order: Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows. 

Loss in Manures. — Manures are liable to lose their value 
during storage from two direct causes: 

First, heating, when left in heaps in the barnyard or in 
the field. This results in the loss of nitrogen. Manure must 
not be allowed to get hot from its own fermentation. 

Second, leaching, when left where water can wash it. 
This may take away much of the valuable plant-food. When 
manure is allowed to leach the most valuable parts are lost 
first. 

Extremes in moisture and temperature should not be 
allowed if manure is to be saved. There is very little loss 



80 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



if the heap is kept wet enough to prevent heating, and kept 
dry enough to prevent water from passing through it. 

Under the average conditions where manure is allowed 
to stand in the barnyard for three months or more, the loss 
is from one-third to one-half of the plant-food in it (Fig. 44). 

Care of Manures. — A good way to save manure is to 
store it under cover — sheltered from rain and direct sunshine. 

There is less heating of manure when it is packed very 
hard, because the air is kept away. One plan of keeping 
it well packed is to have a shed or covered barnyard with a 




Fig. 44. — A poor way to store barnyard m: m ' 

The barn is badly rotted by this method. 



n the pround is leveL 
al Industry.) 



cement floor, on which the manure from the barn is spread 
daily. Stock are allowed to tramp this down all winter, and 
it is hauled to the fields in the spring. 

Spreading Directly on Fields. — Barnyard manure is used 
to the best advantage when it is spread directlj^ on the fields 
regularly, every day or every week. In northern and central 
states where many animals are stabled during the winter, 
a large amount of maniire is allowed to pile up about the 
buildings and waste rapidly. It should be spread on the fields, 
where it is to be used, as fast as it is made (Figs. 45 and 46). 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 



81 



This saves the manure best. Labor is cheaper in winter; 
snows may allow the use of sleds for hauling; the least amount 
of labor is required in placing the manure from the stalls 
on a sled or wagon to be taken to the field. The manure 
should be spread when carried to the field, and not left in 
heaps to leach. 

The practice followed in some sections of putting the 
manure in piles in the field should be stopped. That is an 
old-fashioned way which requires more labor. It makes the 
grain or other crop uneven in growth and uneven in ripening. 
It does not make the best use of the plant-food in the manure. 



't^«. 



^■'^'V '■», ^M 



^a!$,.^ 



^SH^ 



^ 


r.rH 



Fig. 45. — The modern manure spreader in tlie barnyard. A litter carrier which 
runs on an overhead track is used to take the manure from tlie barn. The figure 
shows the carrier in position of emptying into the spreader-box The team is 
hitclied on and the load is spread in a field as shown in another figure. 

Using Barnyard Manure. — Three points should be con- 
sidered in the use of barnyard manure. First, it is rich in 
nitrogen and has some of the other elements. Second, it is 
well supplied with bacteria which are very helpful to the 
soil. Third, it supplies the soil with humus. 

The manure of the farm should be spread on the highest 
parts of each field, because they are usually the poorest soils 
and some of the fertility naturally washes down toward the 
lower soils. 



82 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

A light dressing of manure on each field every year is 
better than very heavy applications less frequently. This is 
particularly true if the soils are light. Large applications 
of manure are saved better by heavy soils than by light soils. 

Fresh manure has a forcing effect on the crops. If large 
amounts of fresh manure be applied to light soils there is 
danger of the plants suffering from drought in dry seasons; 
the soil may be made too open and loose by too much fresh 
manure at one time. Soils containing much clay will not 
Buffer from larger amounts of fresh manure. 




Fig. 46. — A manure spreader at work. This machine can be regulated to spread 
themanure thick or thin mi tlie field. The spreader makes the be.st use of the manure, 
eaves labor, an<i produces the most uniform crop. 

Some root crops, such as potatoes, may be injured by the 
use of fresh manure. Scab disease may become worse. On 
fields where such crops are to be grown a large amount of 
manure may be used one year before the root crop is planted. 

Composts. — For gardens, flower-beds, and greenhouses, 
it is sometimes a good thing to rot the manure before it is 
used. How to do this without wasting its plant-food is a 
problem which many farmers do not understand. The use 
of a compost heap serves the purpose very well. 

A good compost heap is made by spreading a layer of 
barnyard manure, then a layer of tough sods from a meadow, 
or a layer of leaves, on each of these two layers is sprinkled 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 83 

Bome lime or wood ashes. The layers are repeated until 
the manure is all in the compost. The moisture from rains 
prevents the compost heap from rotting too fast and becom- 
ing too hot. The sod layers save much of the plant-food 
which would otherwise leach out. 

Rotting manure in a compost heap will kill the weed 
seeds; it will reduce the bulk of the manure; it helps to unlock 
the plant-food in the manure; it destroys the injurious effect 
which fresh manure has on such crops as potatoes. Whether 
to make such a compost of the manure will be determined 
by the uses for which it is intended. 

Feeding Plants. — Those forms of plant-food which con- 
tain nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, or lime are considered 
most precious on any farm. Soils are apt to become weak 
in these foods. Many such compounds readily dissolve in 
water and are lost from the soil at times of heavy rain by 
leaching or washing away. They may be absent from other 
causes. There are few if any other plant-foods which need 
cause the farmer much concern. The others are usually 
abundant enough. 

Commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen or phosphoric 
acid or potash — or all three of these — are purchased in great 
abundance in the Eastern and Southern States and for special 
crops elsewhere. These are applied to the soils for the 
direct feeding of crops. It is estimated that over eight mil- 
lion tons of such fertilizers are used in the United States 
each year. These cost the farmers over two hundred million 
dollars. As a rule they have no beneficial effect in improving 
the soil itself, as do the barnyard and the green manures. 
A commercial fertilizer is valuable in proportion to the 
amount and kind of these three plant-foods contained in it. 

Nitrogen is the most important element of such fertil- 
izers, because soils are more often in need of it, and it is the 
most costly. When it is in a soluble form for plants to use, 
it is apt to be lost from many kinds of soils, unless cover 



84 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

crops are used. There are several sources of the nitrogen 
purchased for fertilizers. Nitrogen is derived from animal 
or vegetable matter as in meat scraps, dried blood, and 
cottonseed meal. It is also abundant in sulphate of ammonia 
and nitrate of soda purchased by fertilizer manufacturers. 

In the nitrate form it is more quickly useful to the crops, 
and should be applied to the soil after the plants have started 
growth. Some of the other forms in which nitrogen is used 
are very slow in changing to forms available to plants; some 
of these are hair, leather scraps, garbage tankage, and others. 
It is very important for the farmer to know the source of 
the nitrogen in the fertilizer he is buying. For this reason 
it is becoming a common practice in some sections for farm- 
ers to buy the fertilizer materials separately and mix them 
on the farm. 

Phosphoric acid is contained in substances in combina- 
tion with lime and other materials. Such combinations 
are called phosphates. Ground bone is one of the chief 
sources of phosphoric acid in fertilizers. If this is ground 
very fine it will rot gradually and liberate food useful to 
growing crops. Animal bone contains on an average four 
per cent of nitrogen and twenty per cent of phosphoric 
acid. 

Bone tankage is a by-product from slaughter-houses, 
made up of various wastes that have been thrown in a tank 
and the grease extracted. Its value varies considerably 
according to the amount of meat or of bone in it. 

Phosphate rock has been obtained some time from a 
number of deposits in South Carolina, Florida, and Tennes- 
see. Recent discoveries of it have been made in Utah, 
Idaho, and Wyoming. 

The rock is used in two ways: (1) It is ground very fine 
and applied to soils, yielding its phosphoric acid to plants 
very gradually. This form is sometimes called floats. (2) 
The ground phosphate rock is treated with sulfuric acid 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 85 

before it is used on the soil. This makes the phosphoric 
acid more quickly available for the use of growing plants. 
In this form it is called superphosphate, or acid phosphate, 
which is a soluble phosphate; this may contain from 
fourteen to twenty per cent of phosphoric acid. Super- 
phosphates may also be made from bone and bone tankage. 

Exercise. — To Study Phosphorus. — Roll the head of a 
match between the moistened fingers. The white fumes are 
caused by the phosphorus in the match uniting with the 
oxygen in the air. They are called phosphoric acid. This 
is a form of the plant-food we have been studying. 

Potash is the third essential element in commercial fertil- 
i2?ers, and is not so generally required. It is often needed 
on soils that have been farmed for a long time and also on 
sandy soils and peaty soils. It is derived from wood ashes 
to a limited extent. The largest source is in the form of 
mineral salts from the Strassfurt Mines of Europe. The 
chief names given to these salts are car-nall-ite, kain-it, 
and syl-vin-it. These may be ground fine and used on the 
soil; but they are more commonly refined or concentrated 
before being shipped to this country. The two concentrated 
forms of potash salts are the (1) muriate of potash, contain- 
ing fifty per cent of actual potash, and (2) the sulfate of 
potash, containing forty-eight per cent of actual potash. 
In all of the forms potash is soluble in water, and is easily 
absorbed by plants. 

Value of Fertilizers. — In buying commercial fertilizers 
the purchaser should remember that the agricultural value 
is based not upon the brand but more upon kind and form 
of the elements and upon their proportion in the mixture. 
Many farmers are inclined to buy fertilizers that have a 
low price per ton. These are invariably more expensive 
sources of plant-food elements than those more highly con- 
centrated, because of the necessity of diluting the mixtures 
with "make-weight" or low-grade materials. High-grade 



86 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



fertilizers, those that contain good forms of plant-food, 
cannot be made from cheap materials, and if they contain 
high percentages of the elements they cannot be sold for a 
low price (Fig. 47). The price per ton, whether high or low, 
is not a safe guide as to the effect that a fertilizer may have 
upon the crop production. This is measured by the kind 
and form of the materials used in the mixture. 

Exercise. — Dissolving Nitrate of Soda. — Put one-half 
teaspoonful of nitrate of soda in a glass of water and stir 





Fig. 47. — The large square ^4 represents a ton of low-grade fertilizer (for- 
mula 2% nitrogen, 8% phosphoric acid, 2% potash). The valuable part is represented 
by the dark square in the corner. The shaded area shows what is called filler, 
which does no good to the soil. 

The large square B represents a tea of high-grade fertilizer. The valuable 
part is what is shown by the white square in the comer. Some filler is always 
present. It is represented by shaded area. 



until dissolved. Plants must have their food in the soil 
dissolved before they can use it. Would this nitrate dissolve 
in the rain? 

Exercise. — Collection of Fertilizers. — Let the pupils aid 
the teacher in making a collection of all the different fertil- 
izers to be found at the dealers or which can be secured by 
mail. Put these in bottles with suitable labels. Keep them 
for future study. 

Exercise. — Solubility of Phosphates. — Put a very little 
phosphate rock which is ground fine in a glass of water 
and see if it will dissolve. Do the same with a little ground 
bone in another glass. Pour in a little clear lime-water. 
If there were any phosphate dissolved this would cause a 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 87 

white cloudy appearance. If bone and phosphate rock were 
in the soil, would they be dissolved by rain? 

Exercise. — Dissolving Superphosphates. — Put a very 
little superphosphate (or acid phosphate) from a fertilizer 
sack in a glass of water and stir. Does any of it dissolve? 
Add a little clear lime-water. It should make a white cloudy 
appearance, showing that some of the material has dissolved. 
This would mean that plants could use this form of fer- 
tihzer. 

Problems. — 1. If nitrate of soda is 16 per cent nitrogen, 
how many pounds of nitrogen in a ton of it? 

2. If sulphate of ammonia is 20 per cent nitrogen, how 
much of it would be required to supply a 12-acre field with 
240 pounds of nitrogen? 

3. When available phosphoric acid is valued at 5 cents 
per pound, what should be the cost per ton of mineral super- 
phosphate which is 14 per cent available? What should it 
cost per ton if it is 20 per cent available? 

4. A shipment of sulphate of potash contained 48 per cent 
potash, which should sell at 5 cents per pound of potash. 
What will be the selling price per ton of this fertilizer? 

REVIEW. 

1. Give four kinds of improvement for soils. 

2. Give two kinds of tillage and the implements used for each. 

3. Give all the objects of plowing. 

4. Describe the different forms of mouldboards and the special 
use of each form. 

5. What is a gang plow? 

6. Give several reasons for fall-plowing. 

7. Give a general rule governing the depth to plow. 

8. Describe a system of preventing weeds by shallow tillage. 

9. Give the benefits derived from green manures. 

10. What care should be exercised in the use of green manures? 

11. Give the effects of lime on light soils. On heavy soils. 

12. Give five other effects of lime. 

13. Give five things which influence the value of barnyard manure. 

14. What are the two main causes of loss in stored manures? How 
great is the loss usually? 

15. Describe two good ways of storing manure. 



88 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

16. By what plan is manure used to the best advantage? 

17. Describe the making of a compost. Of what use is it? 

18. What three important plant-foods are found in commercial 
fertilizers? Which is the most important? 

19. Name five or more substances from which nitrogen is derived. 

20. Give three sources of phosphoric acid. 

21. What are superphosphates? 

22. Give the sources of potash in commercial fertilizers. 

23. What efforts to improve soils have you observed? 

24. What crops are grown in your section to plow under as green 
manure? 

25. What forms of lime are used? On what crops? 

26 Do farmers in your section haul out manure in the winter? 
To what fields? 



CHAPTER IX. 
SYSTEMS OF CROPPING. 

By rotation of crops is meant the succession of different 
crops, in contrast with the bad practice of having the same 
kind of crop grow year after year on the same field without 
any cover crop intervening. 

Special and General Farming.— In many of the Eastern 
States special farming is more profitable than general farm- 
ing. The raising of dairy produce, poultry products, hay, 
and seed-corn are some of the distinct lines of special farm- 
ing. In the South, cotton, cane, corn, and tobacco are 
among the special crops. In the Northwest and Middle 
West grain is the only crop on many farms. 

General farming is practised in nearly all parts of the 
country. In such cases it is found much easier to carry out 
good systems of rotation. 

Why We Rotate Crops. — There are a number of advan- 
tages gained when crops are raised in rotation. 

1. Some crops have deep roots; others shallow roots. 
The growth of a variety of crops on a certain field will pre- 
vent it from being exhausted so soon. 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 89 

2. Grain crops and many others take all their nitrogen 
from the soil; but leguminous crops, such as the clovers, 
peas and beans, gather much nitrogen from the air in the 
soil. Their growth will increase the store of nitrogen in the 
soil. A rotation of crops which includes the legumes will 
help to keep up the nitrogen supply in the soil. 

3. Crops put waste matter into the soil through their 
roots. This often acts as a poison to the kind of plants that 
put it there. It may not be a poison to other lands of crops 
which follow in the rotation. 

4. Soils should be covered with growing crops as much of 
the time as possible. This guards against loss of soil by 
washing and leaching. It is possible to keep the soil thus 
protected if we have a rotation of crops; but it is usually 
not possible if but one crop is grown. 

5. Insect enemies and diseases of plants are liable to be 
worse when one crop is grown continuously. Rotation of 
crops is often a perfect remedy against these enemies. 

6. There is more continuous work for men and horses, 
because a rotation of crops distributes the labor throughout 
the season. Horses and men should be given steady employ- 
ment if possible. It is not profitable to keep horses idle too 
long at a time, as when only one crop is raised. 

7. Rotations always require a variety of soil treatment, 
as plowing the ground at different times of year. This is 
better than always following the same tillage at the same 
season of the year. We can best control the soil moisture 
by proper tillage at the right season. 

8. Rotation of crops helps to keep weeds in check. Many 
weeds which thrive in a hayfield will be kept down by a 
culture crop, as corn, cotton, or potatoes; while certain other 
weeds, which are bad in a cornfield, may be killed by growth 
of grain or grass. 

9. More sources of income are found on those farms where 
rotations are practised. There is also less danger of financial 



90 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

loss in seasons when certain crops are failures. The other 
crops grown on the fields of the farm ma}' not fail. 

Chief Needs of Rotations. — The needs of rotation are 
fairly well understood by most farmers. There is greatest 
need when crops are suffering from particular weeds, bad 
insect pests or diseases, or when the soil is becoming exhaust- 
ed. However, rotation of crops should always be practised. 

Exercise. — One Benefit of Rotation of Crops. — Have 
students dig out a few plants of different kinds of crops, 
such as clover and timothy. They should study the root 
systems and compare the deep-feeding roots with the shallow- 
feeding ones. Shallow roots use the surface soil; deep roots, 
such as clover, will bring up food from the subsoil. This 
will help to make plain one value of rotation of crops. 

Bare Fallow. — It is now considered bad practice to allow 
ground to remain bare for any great length of time between 
one crop and the next. It is sometimes a good plan to do this 
for a few weeks providing the soil is kept pulverized on top 
by the use of a harrow once a week or soon after each rain. 
This practice of bare fallowing will cause the sprouting of 
weed seeds and the harrow teeth will kill the young sprouts. 
The soil moisture is also saved by the mulch of fine soil on 
top of the field. 

Catch Crops. — In place of fallowing has come the use of 
catch crops. In this method the ground is kept covered with 
a growing crop of some kind as much of the year as possible. 
For example, after a grain crop has been removed, a crop of 
cow peas, soy beans, millet, sorghum, or some other quick- 
growing crop is seeded. Crimson clover (Fig. 48) and winter 
vetch are often mixed with -snnter grain and sown in the 
cornfield in July, so they will be ready to occupy the field 
as soon as the crop is taken off. These three plants all 
live through the winter. This winter cover crop is also used 
after removing other crops such as early potatoes. 

How They Help the Farmer. — Catch crops or cover crops 
may be useful in several ways: 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 



91 



1, They help to hold soil from washing away by heavy 



rains. 



2. Their roots are helpful to unlock plant-food in the soil. 

3. When members of the clover family of plants, called 
legumes, are used, they gather nitrogen from the air and add 
it to the soil for future crops. 




Fig. 48. — Crimson (or scarlet) clover. This is a hardy legume, chiefly used aa a 
winter cover crop. It is sown in fields of corn, cotton, or other crops and in orchards 
in July or August. It will improve the soil while growing until the following spring. 
It may then be cut for hay or may be plowed under for green manure. 

4. They check the growth of bad weeds. 

5. They furnish pasture, hay or other valuable stock feed. 

6. If plowed under as green manure, they produce humus 
in the soil, and quickly give to the soil the plant-food they 
have been using. 

7. When grown among fruit trees and shrubs they check 
late growth of the trees and temper the effect of winter 
freezing. 



92 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Cover Crops in Orchards. — In young orchards winter 
rye is sown in early fall. This crop is turned under in spring 
and soy beans or cow peas are sowti in June, to be turned 
under in time for sowing rye. These add humus and keep 
a cover on the orchard soil; the cow peas or soy beans add 
nitrogen, and much plant-food is unlocked by all of them for 
the young trees to use in their growth. 

A Few Rotations. — Examples of rotations with catch 
crops and cover crops may be of interest: 

1. Oats and common red clover may be sown in the 
early spring. When the crop of oats is harvested the clover 
will occupy the ground quickly. It forms a good cover on 
the field that winter, and will produce one or two cuttings of 
hay the next summer. The stubble may be plowed under 
for corn the following spring. In the cornfield in July we 
can sow a cover crop of crimson clover, winter vetch, and 
rye for a winter cover crop. This is to be plowed under the 
next spring as green manure. This three-year rotation is 
thus outlined: 

Oats; Red clover; Corn with winter cover crop. 

2. Early potatoes may be followed with a winter cover 
crop. This cover crop is plowed under in the spring and 
early potatoes again planted. This and the next are called 
one-year rotations. 

3. Corn is sometimes planted on a field year after year 
if a winter cover crop is put on each time. 

4. Winter wheat is soAvn in September, and the crop cut 
in July. After the stubble is plowed in, a good summer 
catch crop of cow peas or of soy beans may be grown in six, 
eight, or ten weeks. Then the catch crop may be harvested 
for hay or it may be plowed under as green manure. This 
is done in time to prepare the field for winter grain again.. 

A Rotation for Dairy Farms. — A very good four-year rota- 
tion followed by a number of dairymen is about as follows: 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 93 

The farm has four fields, A, B, C, and D. Thia year, 
field A is seeded to oats and red clover with a little timothy 
and blue grass in it. After the oats are cut off the growth 
of clover comes on and may be pastured a little in September. 
Next year the clover will be cut twice for hay. The third 
year the field will be well filled with the grasses and some 
clover and the stock will use it all for pasture. This will be 
plowed for the next year's corn crop. Fields B, C, and D 
each follow the same rotation, but each is just a year behind 
the other, thus: 

A B 

1st year Grain and seeding Clover hay 

2d year Clover hay Pasture 

3d year Pasture Corn 

4th year Corn Grain and seeding 

C D 

1st year Pasture Corn 

2d year Corn Grain and seeding 

3d year Grain and seeding Clover hay 

4th year Clover hay Pasture 

Details of the Rotation. — The four fields are each about 
the same size and the corn area may be reduced by using 
part of that field for the summer green-feed each time. In 
this four-year rotation system two of the fields are plowed 
and prepared for planting each year, one for spring grain 
and one for field corn. In case winter grain is used instead 
of spring grain, the corn is removed as soon as possible after 
cutting. 

Quick rotations give us better clover for the dairy herd 
than when the fields are kept in hay for several years. It 
is better for the dairyman to produce hay that is all clover 
than it is to let the clover all disappear because the field is 
kept too many years in hay. Timothy hay or the "mixed" 
red-top and timothy are very poor milk producers. Clover 
is more than twice as valuable for milk cows. 

In this four-year rotation a small permanent pasture may 
be used also; but let it be well kept up and never used too 



94 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

long at a time. If the other four fields are fenced, the 
field that is growing up to timothy and blue grass will make 
the best pasture. 

During the winter and early spring the stable manure may 
be spread on the field that is to be plowed up next for corn. 

This rather rapid rotation of crops keeps up the fertility 
of the soil well. It allows the use of clover often on each 
field, and clover manure is one of the richest forms of manure 
for the soil. 

Pasturing a field one season in four is no small factor in 
keeping up its fertihty; but some commercial fertilizer, in 
the form of acid phosphate and potash, may be used to supply 
the loss of mineral constituents. Some of this fertilizer may 
be applied when corn is planted and some when the grain 
is sown. Lime should be applied to the field where clover 
is to grow next. 

In all rotations where common red clover follows small 
grain, it is usually seeded in the growing grain in early spring 
or with the spring seeding of grain. 

An Alfalfa Rotation. — On dairy farms where alfalfa is 
extensively grown, some systematic rotation may be adopted. 
It is advisable to plow up the alfalfa field as soon as it becomes 
rather weedy. This gives a chance to take advantage of 
the fertility which it has been gathering for us. 

As soon as the June cutting has been taken off, the ground 
is quickly prepared for corn to be used for fodder. The 
next spring oat-and-pea mixture is sown, and as soon as the 
crop is off the stubble is turned under. The harrow is used 
once a week until the middle of August; then lime is applied 
and alfalfa is seeded, using about thirty pounds to the acre. 
Inoculation at this time is unnecessary. We have thus 
taken from the field a crop of fodder corn and one of oats- 
and-peas, between two crops o f alfalfa. 

Exercise. — Rotation Courses. — Let pupils report on the 
rotations followed at home or in the farming neighbor- 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 



95 



hoods where they are best acquainted. They may tell 
whether they could be improved or not. Some of them 
should be written on the blackboard and discussed as to the 
tillage required, effects on weeds, and other points. 




Fig. 49. — Oats and peas sown in early spring, ready to cut for use as green 
feed or for making hay by the middle of June. Corn may be grown on the same 
ground in the same season. Harvesting the oats and peas shown in the upper 
figure. The stubble may be plowed or disked and the field quickly planted to corn. 
(Experiment Station, N. J.) 

Succession Cropping. — This is the growing of one crop 
after another on the same land in the same season. For 
example, radish, lettuce, tomatoes. Let the pupils tell what 
plans of cropping they have seen in use either in gardens 



96 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



or in fields. This may arouse much valuable discussion, 
(Figs. 49, 50.) 

Companion Cropping. — This is a form of double cropping. 
What crops may be groA\Ti in fields together? Have you seen 




Fig. 50. — Com grown for forage after the spring crop of oats and peas shoTm in 
Fig. 49. (Experiment Station, X. J.) 



corn and squashes grown together? All the pupils should 
think over the crops that may grow together as companion 
crops. Early onions with late celery are an example in the 
garden. Early dwarf peas and tomatoes may be grown 
together. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give examples of special lines of farming in your section of the 
country. 

2. Give several reasons for the rotation of crops. 

3. Why do we want crops of the legume family in a rotation series? 

4. Can you tell how rotation of crops will help to keep down insect 
enemies and diseases of plants? 

5. Explain why you think the sixth advantage from rotation ot 
crops is a good one. 

6. Name some weeds often found in hayfields or pastures which 
would not thrive in a cultivated cornfield. 

7. Give one benefit of a bare fallow. 

8. In what condition should soil be kept during a bare fallow period 
of a few weeks? 

9. Tell the difference between a bare fallow system and a catch 
crop system. 



FARM CROPS 97 

10. Give examples of summer catch crops. 

11. Give examples of plants used as winter cover crops. 

12. Give several uses of catch crops and cover crops. 

13. Should such crops be used in young orchards or in old ones? 

14. How do they benefit the soil and trees? 

15. Give an example of a three-year rotation of crops. 

16. Tell when each of these crops is planted and harvested. 

17. Give an example of a rotation system where potatoes are the 
special crop desired. 

18. Repeat the four-year rotation given in the book for dairy farms. 

19. Describe a good rotation where alfalfa is grown. 

20. What is succession cropping? Give examples. 

21. What is companion cropping? Give examples. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 318, Cowpeas; 509, 
Forage Crops for Cotton Region; 515 and 529, Vetches; 550 and 646, 
Crimson Clover. 



CHAPTER X. 
FARM CROPS. 

Classification of Crops. — Field crops are those which are 
most commonly grown in fields; they are sometimes also 
grown in gardens. Those usually found in gardens only 
are called horticultural crops; these include all fruits and 
flowers and most vegetables. 

Crops of all kinds may also be classified according to the 
following six groups: 

1. Forage and Fiber Crops. — These include grasses, clo- 
vers, and alfalfa, used for green forage, for hay, or for pas- 
ture; and cotton, flax, and hemp, used for fiber. 

2. Cereal Crops. — The grains are called cereals. These 
include corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye and emmer. 

3. Tuber Crops. — White or Irish potatoes are true tubers; 
sweet potatoes are usually also classified with tubers, but 
strictly speaking they are believed to be roots. 

4. Root Crops include many that are used for stock feed, 
such as mangels, field beets, beets, turnips, carrots. 

5. Market-garden Crops. — Here we find cabbage, cauli- 
flower, celery, onions, lettuce, radish, table beets, melons, 
and many others. 



98 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

6. Fruit Crops. — These may be grouped as (a) stone 
fruits, such as peach, plum, and cherry; (6) pome fruits, 
such as apple, pear, and quince; (c) small fruits, such as 
strawberries, grapes, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and 
blackberries ; (d) citrus fruits, such as orange, lemon, pomelo 
or grape fruit, and lime fruit. 

7. Timber Crops, or products of the forest. 

FORAGE CROPS. 

The Soiling System. — One thing that the dairy farmer 
needs to keep in mind is the succession of green forage for 
use during the summer months when the weather is dry and 
the pastures are short. Crops grown to be cut and fed green 
to stock are called soiling crops. Such a system of feeding 
is called the soiling system. A better name would be the 
green-feed system. The soiling system used on any farm 
may be either (1) entire soiling, when green feed is provided 
for the whole season, or (2) partial soiling, where it is used 
in combination with pastures. 

The need for preparation in advance is very great on all 
dairy farms in this climate. The weather statistics show 
that we always have least rainfall in midsummer. There 
is certain to be enough drought each summer to cause a 
great shrinkage in the milk flow from herds fed on pastures. 

Just when the drought will come depends somewhat upon 
the locality and also the season. Frequently it is in July. 
Dairymen, however, prepare themselves to take care of the 
herd regardless of the dates when the dry weather comes. 

In a single county alone each summer there are thousands 
of dollars lost by the dairymen, due to the lack of green 
feed during the dry, hot days. In some localities the shrink- 
age of milk-flow is forty per cent in two weeks' time. In 
other cases the loss is about twenty-five per cent in the 
same time. Who is the loser at such a time? Is it the dairy 
farmer, or is it the buyer? Surely the farmer gets nothing 
for the milk which his cows fail to produce. He stands the 



FARM CROPS 99 

heaviest loss. Some cows of the herds run so low at the dry 
pasture season that they cannot be brought back to their 
normal flow when the fall rains come. They are often carried 
into winter as mere strippers, at a dead loss to their owners. 

The farmer can lay out his fields and plan the seeding 
so as to have some green feed to give the cows at any time 
when the dry weather comes on. He cannot hope to have 
such green forage ready at any time it is needed for the cows 
unless he plans for it in advance. First, he should make a 
list of the crops which would suit his purposes and his other 
farm plans. Second, he should decide what areas of each of 
these crops will be needed for the number of cows in the 
herd, providing for plenty. If there is any left over it may 
be used for hay or fodder. 

Soiling Crops. — Here is a suggestive list: Wheat or rye 
mixed with crimson clover or winter vetch, sown in the corn- 
field in July, to be cut when the grain begins to head out or 
when in full blossom. 

Oats and Canada field peas sown in early spring, to be cut 
as the peas begin to blossom. 

Spring vetch with oats or barley, sown at the same time 
as oats-and-peas or a little later. 

Crimson clover sown in corn in July or August, ready to 
cut in May. 

Red clover sown last season may be fed green in June 
if needed. 

Timothy and other grasses may be cut early and some 
fed green to the cows. 

Alfalfa, where grown, will furnish green feed from May 
to Octoljcr. 

Millets sown in early June may be fed six or eight weeks 
later as green forage. 

Cow peas or soy beans sown in June or July will supply 
a long succession of green feed, at dates six to ten weeks from 
the seeding time. 



100 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Flint corn, sweet corn, dent corn, and kaffir (Fig. 58), 
sown broadcast or drilled in rows, will begin to furnish feed 
as early as July 15th or August 1st. This will last until 
fall frosts come. 

After these soiling crops are gone the dairy farmer may 
use root crops, such as mangels, to furnish succulence for the 
dairy in late fall and early winter, if ensilage is not available. 

Oats and Peas. — The benefits derived from using this 
mixture as a crop each year on the farm are very great. As 
forage this mixture is very good because of the high content 
of protein. 

The ground should be plowed and harrowed early and 
the seed drilled in as early as the weather wall permit. Do 
not be afraid of a little freezing weather afterward. Two 
bushels of Canada field peas and one bushel of oats will seed 
an acre. A bushel and a half of each may be used. 

For Green Feed. — Begin to cut the crop for green feed 
just as the first pea blossoms are showing. This first field 
will furnish green feed for the dairy herd for ten or fifteen 
days, depending on the weather. 

For a herd of twenty-five or thirty cows, it is well to 
allow two acres for each sowing of oats-and-peas, and make 
three sowings — one as soon as the soil can be worked; the 
next two weeks later; and the last about three weeks later 
than the second sowing. The yields should be ten or twelve 
tons of green feed per acre. 

A Good Hay. — The areas mentioned for each of these 
sowings may leave a little each time to be cured for hay. 
Those dairy feeders who are already familiar with the good 
feeding qualities of hay made from oats-and-peas will be 
sure to make the areas large enough to leave plenty of the 
crop to be cured for winter use. In cutting it for hay it 
must not be allowed to get too ripe. If the peas are hard 
the cows do not like them so well. The cured hay is nearly 
equal to good clover hay as winter roughage. 



FARM CROPS 101 

When farmers get a larger crop of hay from this mixture 
than they can from common grasses, they should not depend 
upon timothy and red top so much in dairy sections. Aside 
from the yield, we must remember also that the quality of 
the hay is much better than timothy, for it contains two or 
three times as much protein or milk-producing substance. 

There is always a greater yield of oats per acre because 
of the presence of the Canada peas. A field sown with three 
bushels per acre, half peas and half oats, will yield more oats 
than if the sowing were all oats. This is because the peas 
gather nitrogen for the two, getting it from the air, 

A Good Grain Mixture. — If the crop should be ripened and 
threshed, the grain may be all ground together. This pro- 
duces an excellent balanced grain ration for the dairy cow. 
Why should dairymen not produce more of their own grain 
at home in this very way? Oats alone seldom pay for the 
cost of raising them in the East, but when raised in this 
mixture they will pay well, providing we have a mill near 
by where the grinding can be done. Swine and poultry tly-ive 
on this grain mixture. 

Forage for Midsummer. — The foregoing are chiefly very 
early crops. Other special crops may be grown which will 
be ready to feed to stock at a time near midsummer when 
pastures are apt to be too dry to give the stock enough feed. 
Some such crops were mentioned in the earlier part of this 
chapter. As we have already seen, this system of green 
feeding is called the soiling system. Now let us consider 
the matter of growing such forage crops as will be ready to 
feed green during the dry season. We can then combine the 
pasture system with the soiling system — called partial soiling. 

Corn for Green Forage. — Early sweet corn may be ready 
for July use. The ears may be used for market and the forage 
fed to stock. Early flint corn would come along just after 
it. Next the dent field corn would be fit to use. This would 
last imtil frost. 



102 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Several plantings of sweet and dent corn may be made 
through May and June, the later plantings being ready 
later. It is best to not use these early plantings of corn 
before they are in the roasting-ear or milk stage. In that 
condition corn has a good supply of nourishment, but it 
grows richer as it grows older. 




Fia. 81. — Black-hulled white kaffir, much grown in dry climates to use in pltkce 
of corn. CExperiment Station, Kans.) 



Substitutes for Corn. — Kaffir (Fig. 51) and sorghum are 
both good substitutes for field corn and have the advantage 
of being suitable to feed green at almost any stage in their 
growth, because they are a little more fibrous. Both sorghum 
and kaffir make rapid growth in warm weather on good soil. 

The Legume Family. — This is a family of plants of great 
value to agriculture. The legume family is often called the 



FARM CROPS 103 

clover or pea family, after prominent members of the group. 
Other common plants included in it are beans, lentils, locust 
trees, alfalfa, vetches, lupins, cow peas, and soy beans. 

The growth of characteristic one-sided blossoms and the 
formation of seed in a pod are distinguishing features of the 
members of this family. 

They have power, under proper conditions, of taking 
free nitrogen from the air for their own use in growing. They 
have nodules on their roots which are the homes of special 
kinds of helpful bacteria. It is when these bacteria are 
present that the plants can use the nitrogen from the air. 
None but members of this family are thus able to use the 
free nitrogen. But when the stubble and roots of the legumes 
decay they leave nitrogen in the soil in a form which other 
kinds of crops can use. As nitrogen is the most expensive 
element in purchased fertilizers, farmers should use members 
of this family often in the rotation courses to secure nitrogen 
in the soil for all crops. (Page 87.) 

Exercise. — To Become Acquainted with Some Legumes. — • 
The members of the class should bring samples of different 
clovers, alfalfa, vetch (wild pea), beans, peas, or other 
legumes. If possible, examine the pods of seed in the heads 
of clover and on other plants. Note also the one-sided 
appearance of the blossoms on all of them. The clover 
heads are composed of many blossoms. 

Exercise. — Nodules on Clover Roots. — Have some of 
the older pupils dig up roots of clover, alfalfa, or other leg- 
umes. Wash them and find the nodules or lumps, the size 
of a pin-head or larger. These are the homes of many bac- 
teria which aid the clover plants in getting nitrogen. Save 
the best samples obtained in this exercise by placing them 
in a bottle of water with a small amount (2 per cent) of 
formalin added to it. (See Figs. 52 and 55a.) 

Legumes for Summer Forage. — Farmers should give 
some attention to the growing of several legume crops and 



104 



PRODUCTTVE FARMING 



mixed crops for use when pastures are dry in summer, and 
also for winter forage. 

There are two summer, or hot weather, legumes which 
should always find a place in the rotations on a dairy farm. 
Cow peas (Fig. 53) and soy beans have both been tried so 
often that their use is no longer an experiment. 




Fig. 52. — Alsike-clover roots (on left) and garden-pea roots (on right). Useful 
bacteria live in these nodules and enable the plants to use nitrogen from the air which 
they otherwise could not do. 



They have many advantages: Quick, dense growth if 
sown in warm weather; a big supply of green forage to feed 
when pastures are dry; very good for hay if cut and cured 
in dry weather; ten to twelve per cent of protein in the cured 
crop; a very high content of protein in the ripened seed, 
especially of soy beans; a big supply of nitrogen and green 
manure for the improvement of the soil if the crop is turned 
under, or even if the stubble and roots only are worked in; 
and the deep roots are a great physical help in most soils. 



FARM CROPS 



105 



In p. warm spring it is safe to sow cow peas early in June, 
and the quick-growing varieties will be ready to begin feeding 
green by the middle of July. Six or seven pecks of seed per 
acre are sown. By a succession of sowings of two or three 




Fig. 53. — Cow peas grown in hot weather in eight weeks. They produce good green 
feed or green manure. (.Experiment Station, N.J.) 

varieties we can give the cows fresh green forage every day 
from early July until frost time. 

Cow=Pea Mixtures. — A larger yield to the acre can be 
produced by mixing cow peas or soy beans with other crops. 
We must choose a crop that does best in the hot weather, 



lOG PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

such as barnyard millet, pearl millet, sorglium, kaffir, or 
even common field corn. These all serve as nurse crops 
and allow the use of taller climbing varieties of cow peas. 
Under most conditions the mixtures are better for the dairy 
farmer than the cow peas alone. The mixtures usually cure 
better if any is left to cut for hay. Splendid winter forage is 
thus produced. 

The True Clovers. — The most important clovers of the 
Northern States are white or Dutch clover, red clover, 
alsike or Swedish clover, and crimson or scarlet clover. The 
clovers are the most popular forage plants of the legume 
family. 

White clover is a low trailing perennial plant with white 
blossom heads. It is too low to be useful for hay, but is 
abundantly grown in pastures. 

Red cWver is more commonly grown for hay in the North 
and East than any other legume. It lives about two years. 
There are two varieties — the common or inedium and the 
mammoth or sapling clover. The latter is coarser and taller 
and blossoms later. They are both often mixed with timothy 
for hay purposes. Red clover, if grown alone, will usually 
produce two crops of hay the year after sowing. The second 
growth may be saved for seed production, as the bumble- 
bees, which carry the pollen from blossom to blossom, are 
more abundant during the latter part of the summer. 

Alsike clover is more slender and shorter than red clover. 
It is a short-lived perennial, but it re-seeds itself in the 
field somewhat. The blossoms are shorter and smaller, so 
that common honey-bees will work in them and carry the 
pollen. Thus seeds may be formed in the first crop in June. 
The hay made from alsike clover is finer and better, but the 
yield is fighter than red clover. These two clovers are often 
mixed together and with timothy for hay. 

Crimaon clover is an annual plant which is hardy enough 
to five over winter as. far north as the fortieth parallel of 



FARM CROPS 107 

latitude or farther north where soils are favorable (Fig. 48). 
It is chiefly used as a winter cover crop after early potatoes ^ 
01 sown in cornfields in July to grow until spring. The 
following spring it may be plowed under as a green manure 
cr it may be pastured or used for green forage. 

Methods of Starting Clover. — There are three methods 
of starting red clover. 

Probably the most common way is to sow the seed in early 
spring in a field of grain sown the fall before; or with spring 
grain sown at the same time. After the grain is off in summer 
the clover soon begins to show. 

Second, red clover is often given a better start by seeding 
alone in August or early September, just as for the summer 
seeding of timothy alone. This plan has the advantage of 
an extra plowing of the ground after the early crop has been 
harvested. Weeds are removed and weed-seed sprouted 
and killed. Lime is applied to a better purpose at that time 
after the fine seed bed is prepared. 

A third way is to seed the red clover in the cornfield 
in August just as crimson clover often is seeded with the last 
cultivation of the corn. After the corn is cut a stubble 
cutter is used so the field may be in suitable condition for the 
use of the mower next season. This rotation and method of 
seeding is less common, and for several reasons less desirable. 

Too many farmers allow their hayfields to stand three 
or more years. In such cases the clover plants die and other 
grasses, such as timothy and red top, and weeds fill the field. 
This is a bad mistake if dairy feed is wanted. Too often 
dairymen are trying to get milk from the feeding of timothy 
hay. Such grasses usually make only one good cutting a year, 
with a little aftermath. The clovers are twice as rich in pro- 
tein, and two good cuttings may be made. Furthermore, 
quicker rotations are better for the soil. 

When to Cut for Hay. — Red clover for hay should be cut 
early. Do not wait until its heads are a third brown, A 



108 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

better time is when the heads are just beginning to turn 
brown. This will make hay which has more protein in it 
and the cows like it better if it is cut early. 

Permanent Pastures. — A permanent pasture is a field 
which is used as a pasture each summer and does not enter 
into any systematic rotation. In some instances the field is 
used for such a pasture because of the rough surface making 
it untillable. It may be too steep or hilly, or too stony, or 
have too many stumps, or be too low and wet for cultivated 
crops. In some of these places pastures may be very good 
if properly maintained. 



Fig. 54. — Dump hay-rake used in raking hay into windrows. (Plant Industry.) 

In still other instances we find permanent pastures on 
the very best soil and over tillable areas. 

Good Pasture Plants. — Low white clover, Kentucky 
blue grass, and timothy are the most popular and best plants 
for pastures where the climate is moist and cool. There are 
many other grasses which we often find growing with these, 
such as red top, meadow fescue, orchard grass, and Canada 
blue grass. A variety of grasses is best because of the dif- 
ferent kinds of seasons, and variations in soils. For example, 



FARM CROPS 109 

shallow-rooted plants like wet soils better than the deeper- 
rooted plants do; some stand drought better than others; 
some kinds require more lime in the soil than others. 

Bad Conditions in Pastures. — Too often the permanent 
pasture is a field of weeds with very little grass to be found 
most of the summer. The conditions grow worse each year. 
Little feed is supplied to the cows pasturing there; milk is 
made bitter and given other bad flavors by garlic, wild 
onions, and other weeds, eaten by the animals. The number 
of acres used for the pasture often fools the dairyman into 
the thought that the cows get plenty of feed from it if they 
want it. Here is where the trouble begins. The cows do get 
a fair amount of grass for a while in June. But the change 
comes; the dry weather strikes it; the grasses are shallow 
rooted; the result is dead grass. The blossom and seeding 
time for early grasses comes; this also means death. 

How to Keep Good Pastures. — The pasture should be 
filled with good stands of mixed grasses. The farmer should 
maintain the pasturage to the best of his ability. Certain 
amendments or improvements are needed from time to time — • 
such as fertilizing, liming, re-seeding, harrowing, mowing, 
and using a few sheep in the pasture with the cows. 

Fertilizers and manures, particularly nitrate of soda, 
may be spread a few weeks before the stock are turned on 
to the pastures in the spring. 

Lime should be applied to low meadow land every year 
or two. Clovers, blue grass, and timothy do much better 
after the liming. 

Re=seeding is a good practice. More seed should be 
so^Ti wherever the grasses are not so thick as they should 
be. A good time for this is very early in the spring. The 
thicker we make the grass the less room there is for weeds. 

Harrowing is quite possible on many parts of most pas- 
tures. A number of harrowings each spring will pay well. 

Mowing the pasture twice each year will help to check 



110 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

the growth of weeds and will prevent many of them from 
seeding. It also helps the growth of all grasses. The cutting 
should be made high, as a low cutting destroys too much of 
the valuable leaf growth of the lower grasses. In a pasture, 
the tall weeds and tall grasses that have sent up seed stalks 
should be mown down. The cows do not like them because 
they are old and fibrous. 

Sheep may be used in a very rough pasture along vnth 
cows to help keep down the weeds. They have a liking for 
many kinds of weeds and keep them eaten close to the 
ground. Too many sheep will eat the grasses so close that 
cows cannot get enough. 

REVIEW. 

1. What do you understand by system or lack of system referred 
to on the first page of this chapter? 

2. After making a farm map, tell whether you think there are too 
many fields or too few. 

3. Eastern farms usually have many more fields than Western 
farms. Tell of the advantages if any in each case. 

4. What are the advantages of having a farm map? 

5. What is the soihng system? 

6. What are soiling crops? 

7. What are some advantages of summer soiling for dairy cows? 

8. Why is there need fur it in connection with the pasture system? 

9. Name some of the crops for spring and early summer soiling. 

10. Name some better suited to growth in hot summer. 

11. Mention three uses of oats-and-peas. 

12. At what stage should this crop be cut to cure for hay? 

13. When may soy beans and cow peas be sown? 

14. What are some reasons in their favor? 

15. Give a list of common plants belonging to the legume family. 

16. Give two characteristics of this family. 

17. How does the growth of legumes in a field aid the soil ? 

18. Why should a farmer use legumes in a rotation with other crops? 

19. What does the absence of nodules from the roots of clover tell 
the farmer? 

20. Name four kinds of clover and give the length of life of each. 

21. What is the chief use of white clover? 

22. Which two clovers are most commonly cut for haj'? 

23. Tell of the two varieties of red clover. 

24. What bees pollinate red clover? What bees pollinate alsike 
clover? 

25. Of what special use is crimson clover? 

26. Which of the three methods described for starting red clover 
is considered the best? 



ALFALFA 111 

27. At what stage should red clover be cut for hay? 

28. In what kinds of fields are permanent pastures often found? 

29. Name the plants to be grown in the best pastures. 

30. Mention some of the bad conditions associated with permanent 
pastures. 

31. Tell of five things to help maintain permanent pastures. 

References. — U.S. Farmers' Bulletins: 121, Beans, Peas, and Other 
Legumes as Food; 464, 531, 545, 660, Weeds; 485, Sweet Clover" 508. 
Market Hay; 552, Kafir; 535, 567, 568, Sugar Beets; 605, Sudan Grass; 
669, Flax; 676, Clover Seed; 677, Market Hay; 686, 724, Sorghum 
Grain; 688, Rice; 690, Field Pea; 693, Bur Clover; 726, Natal Grass; 
730, Button Clover. 



CHAPTER XL 
ALFALFA. 



Alfalfa is the best milk-producing crop we can grow. 
It may be used either for green feed or for hay, but in the 
East it is best not to pasture it. It is so rich in protein that 
a ton of the dry hay is equal to a ton of bran for dairy cows. 
It produces heavy yields; the farmer maj^ expect from four 
to five or even six or seven tons of cured hay each season 
from an acre. 

Alfalfa as Green Feed. — As a green feed there is nothing 
that will excel it. Alfalfa reproduces itself frequently and 
constantly throughout the summer, by a quick new growth 
each time it is cut. A good stand of alfalfa on four or five 
acres will supply all the green feed needed for a herd of 
twenty-five cows from the latter part of May until the middle 
of September. A little is cut at a time so as to keep it always 
rather fresh for the cows. By the time the entire field is thus 
fed off, the side of the field first cut is again ready for cutting. 

A Soil Improver. — There is one more strong argument in 
favor of alfalfa growing, viz., it is a soil improver. The roots 
reach down deep and recover lost minerals such as potash 
and phosphoric acid. The plant is a great feeder on nitrogen 



112 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

from the air. The store of nitrogen in the roots and stubble, 
when plowed under, will help produce large corn or other 
crops on that field afterwards. 

Sprouting Weed Seeds. — An early field of oats-and-peas 
should be grown in the spring and the stubble plowed under 
in June or as soon as the crop is all off. The ground is har- 
rowed a])out once a week until the middle of August. This 
makes a good alfalfa seed bed; it controls the soil moisture, 
and also causes the weeds to sprout and be killed by the 
harrow. Now if we select alfalfa seed that is free from weed 
seed, we will have very little or no trouble from weeds in the 
alfalfa field later on. The seed should be examined with a 
good reading glass before sowing. 

Inoculation of Soils. — As alfalfa requires its own bacteria 
in the soil where it is growing, the grower should get four 
or five hundred pounds of soil from the nearest alfalfa field 
and spread it on each acre of the new field. Do this when 
the sun is not shining so the bacteria will not be killed. It 
should be harrowed in immediately. These germs in the new 
soil will be ready to help the young plants as soon as they 
start to grow (see figure 55a). New alfalfa fields require 
inoculation before sowing the seed, except in a few parts of 
the country where certain wild legumes like sweet clover have 
used the same kind of bacteria. 

Liming the Field. — Alfalfa is a great lover of lime. It 
is best to plow the field and apply at least a ton of fine lime 
to each acre not long before seeding. If some lime was put 
on that field in early spring before the oats-and-peas so much 
the better. 

The Seeding of Alfalfa. — We should be all ready to do 
the alfalfa seeding by the time the first August rains moisten 
the ground enough to sprout seeds well. 

Half a bushel of seed, or thirty pounds, is abundant for 
one acre. Half of it can be sown the long way of the field and 
then the last half put in cross-wise of that. In sections 



ALFALFA 



113 



where alfalfa is seeded in the spring, it is sown very early, 
and often with oats. 

Good Drainage. — The field selected for alfalfa should 
be well drained and no water should stand near the surface. 
The roots naturally run down very deep (Fig. 55a), and they 
cannot stand free water at all. A field rich enough and well 
enough drained to produce good corn or oats will do for 
alfalfa. A small application of fertilizer will help to start 
the crop off well. 




Fig. 55a. — Nodules or tubercles on alfalfa, showing the characteristic location 
on fine fibrous roots. 

Fio. 55b. — First growth of alfalfa. Three feet tall. Note the leafy character 
and fine quality of hay it will make. 



Cut Four Times a Year. — Do not cut the crop the first 
fall but allow it to stand until the next May or June before 
the first cutting is made. That season and each following 
year the crop should be cut four times (Fig. 56). There are 
two signs to follow in deciding when to cut any growth of 
alfalfa. First, never let it get too far along in the blossom 
stage. Cut it when the blossoms are just showing a little 
over the field. The second indication of the cutting stage 
is the slight starting of the buds on the sides of the stems at 
the surface of the ground. The new growth starting from 
those buds means that the crop must be cut and removed 



114 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



very quickly, otherwise the new growth would be much 
injured. If, at any time, a yellow appearance or any spots 
on the leaves should be seen, the crop should be cut. The 
last cutting should be made in September so as to give time 
for a new growth to start before winter sets in. This will 
help to prevent winter injury. 




Fig. 56. — A. Hay-caps are often used in cura.j- 
humid climates. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 
B. Loading alfe.lfa by hand power. 



tiio lirst cflttings of alfalfa in 



Curing Alfalfa Hay. — It is sometimes quite difficult to 
cure the earliest cutting because of the rains late in May and 
early in June. Alfalfa is very much injured if wet by rain 
after it is cut. We must keep it dry during the curing pro- 
cess (Fig. 56, A). The sap in the stems does not do so much 
injury; so it may be put in the barn with more of its own 



ALFALFA 



115 



moisture than almost any other hay crop. If allowed to 
get too dry before hauHng in it will lose many leaves, and 




Fia, 67. — Push power sweep rake used in taking hay to a stack in the field. 
(Plant Industry.) 

they are the best part of the crop. With a little care alfalfa 
can be cured in perfect condition, because the time required 
for curing is not long (Figs. 57, 58). 




Fig. 58. — Hay-stackini; machine. The hay is taken irom the sweep rafee (Fig. 
65) and lifted to the stack by horse-power. Notice the horses at the end of the rope. 
(Plant Industry.) 

Eleven Alfalfa Rules. — For the sake of brevity let us 
summarize the chief points in alfalfa management. The 
following eleven rules are quite comprehensive: 



116 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

1. Lime the soil by applying about one ton of lime pet 
acre just before sowing the seed. 

2. Inoculate the new alfalfa field by spreading and har- 
rowing in about five hundred pounds per acre of good soil 
from an old alfalfa field when the sun is not shining. 

3. Have the soil as free from weed seed as possible by using 
a bare fallow for a few weeks before seeding. 

4. Be sure that the alfalfa seed is perfectly pure and free 
from weed seeds. 

5. Use plenty of seed, about thirty pounds per acre, sow- 
ing it both length-wise and cross-wise of the field. 

6. Use good fertile soil and apply some high-grade fertilizer 
about the time of sowing the seed. 

7. Always select a well-drained field for alfalfa. 

8. Cut the crop often — about four times a year, beginning 
with the spring following the August sowing. 

9. Cure the hay carefully to avoid shattering of the leaves 
and to avoid its getting wet with rain, 

10. Do not use the field for pasture, particularly while 
it is young. 

11. Harrow stubble after cutting. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give several arguments in favor of growing alfalfa. 

2. Tell of the use of alfalfa as a green dairy feed. 

3. In what ways does alfalfa improve the soil where it is grown? 

4. Give three benefits of a few weeks of bare fallowing before the 
August seeding of alfalfa. 

5. Tell how a new alfalfa field may be inoculated with the bacteria 
which the plants need. 

6. How much lime should be spread, and when? 

7. Give time, amount, f>nd manner of seeding alfalfa. 

8. Which is better for alfalfa, upland or lowland? Why? 

9. Tell of two things which indicate when to cut nlfalfa for hay. 

10. Tell one difficulty in curing alfalfa hay; and mention one advan- 
tage over other kinds of hay, in its curing. 

11. Give briefly the eleven points covered by the eleven alfalfa 
rules. 

References.— IT. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 330, Alfalfa; 382, Adulter- 
ation of Forage-plant Seeds; 495. Alfalfa Seed Production; 636, Chalsia 
Fly in Alfalfa Seed; 637, Grasshopper Problem and Alfalfa. 



COTTON 117 

CHAPTER XII. 

COTTON PRODUCTION. 

The cotton plant was cultivated in the Old World in 
the earliest historic times. It probably originated in India 
or China. The ancients of India wove the fiber into very 
good cloth. Alexander the Great introduced the plant into 
Europe. Cotton was also grown by the natives of Mexico 
and South America before the discovery of the New World 
by Columbus. 

To Virginia belongs the credit of first starting the culti- 
vation of cotton in the American Colonies. This was in 1621. 
After that it rapidly became a leading money crop of the 
farmers of the South. The labor of removing the lint from 
the seeds greatly reduced the profit from this crop for many 
years. It was a day's labor to separate the seeds from one 
pound of cotton. But in 1792 the cotton gin was invented 
by Eli Whitney. This machine, as improved later, greatly 
increased the profits of cotton raising. 

Importance of the American Cotton Crop. — Cotton is 
far the most important fiber crop of the world. Twelve 
Southern States now supply more than two-thirds of the 
cotton of the world. All nations make clothing from Ameri- 
can cotton. We sell more cotton to other countries than all 
other agi'icultural products combined. 

Other countries producing large amounts of cotton are 
British India, Egypt, Russia, China, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, 
Turkey and Persia. But all of these combined produce 
only one-half as much cotton as is grown in the United States. 

The ten leading States in the production of cotton are 
in the following order: Texas, Georgia, Mississippi, Ala- 
bama, South Carolina, Arkansas, Oklahoma, North Carolina, 
Louisiana and Tennessee. 

Uses of Cotton. — The fibers of the commonest cotton 
are only about one inch long, but they become very much 



118 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



twisted as they ripen (Fig. 59a). This twist causes them to 
cling together well to form thread when put through the 
spinning process (Fig. 596). The thread may then be woven 




Courtesy of Johnson & Johnson. 



Fia. 59a. — Individual fibera of long-staple or Sea Island cotton. The lengths 
of the five are about equal. The ripest are very kinky. (After Brooks.) 

Fig. 596. — Slivers or Iianka of cotton in different steps of making thread or 
yarn. The factory names are: 1, drawing hank; 2, slubbing hank; 3, intermediate 
nank; 4, roving hank; 5, yarn or thread. 




Fig. 60. — Alodern looms, all weaving white cotton cloth. U le por.sou can oper- 
ate twelve to sixteen such looms at a time. Each machine makes seven square 
yards of cloth per hour, using 3,024 yards of yarn to each yard of cloth. 

into cloth (Fig. GO), or formed into rope. The longest fibers 
of lint are desirable for use in making sewing thread, and in 
mixing with the shorter fibers in certain grades of cloth. 



COTTON 119 

Exercise. — Examine the fibers of cotton from a cotton 
boll or from a roll of cotton. Notice how minute they are 
when seen separately. Try twisting a few of the fibers to- 
gether to form a thread. Pull them along as you twist them 
and they will gather up more fibers from the pile of cotton. 

The Cotton's Relatives. — The cotton plant belongs to 
the same family of plants as the hollyhocks, okra, althea, 
mallow weed, and many others. The group is called the 
mallow family. 

Types of Cotton. — There are several different types or 
kinds of cotton. Those grown in the United States are all 
annual, that is, they are all killed by freezing in the fall; but 
in tropical countries they live for many years. Even here 
the plants sprout up from the old root after a mild winter. 

Cotton grown in this country is chiefly of three kinds: 
(1) Common or Short-staple upland cotton, (2) Long-staple up- 
land cotton, and (3) Sea Island cotton (Fig. 59a). Important 
kinds grown elsewhere are (1) India cotton, with very short 
staple, (2) true Peruvian or Egyptian cotton, with long 
staple, usually brownish in color. 

American Upland Cotton. — As shown above, the upland 
cotton is of two kinds, short-staple and long-staple. Together 
these make up all of the American cotton crop, except the 
Sea Island cotton, grown in small amounts, chiefly near the 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 

Short-staple differs from long-staple cotton in length of 
the lint which surrounds the seeds. Short-staple is from 
% to V/s inches long (Fig. 61), and long-staple is usually 1% to 
1% inches long. These varieties may also differ in other 
ways. The long-staple plants are taller, later in maturing 
and have slender, pointed bolls, with less lint. But the long- 
staple sells for a higher price. 

Sea Island Cotton. — This gets its name from the fact 

that it originated in the West India Islands. It grows well 

on the islands and mainland within one hundred miles of 

the coast. Georgia, South Carolina and Florida are increas- 
9 



120 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ing the growth of the Sea Island cotton. The price of this 
type of cotton is high because of the great value of such long 
fibers in making spool cotton for sewing. This plant grows 
rather taller than upland cotton, has long, flexible branche s; 




courtesy of Johnson & Johnson. New Brunswick, N. J. 
the photograph. 

the leaves are more deeply lobed; the flowers axe yellow 
instead of white when freshly opened; the staple is longer, 
and the seeds are free from lint after gimnng. 



COTTON 1S:1 

Improvement of Cotton. — Cotton growers are able to 
improve their crops very greatly by the proper selection of 
varieties and selection of seed from heavy yielding plants. 

As usually grown here the plant is either erect or bushy 
and varies in height from three to eight feet. The length 
and arrangement of branches are indications of earliness and 
productiveness. Cotton itself has other desirable qualities, 
such as strength of lint, fineness, and uniformity of color. Im- 
provement of cotton is best accomplished by selecting seed 
from plants with such desirable qualities. 

The yields of cotton may be greatly increased by proper 
fertilizers, good rotations, early planting, securing a good 
stand of plants and frequent tillage. 

Selecting Seed.— The grower should select the seed just be- 
fore or during the second picking, and avoid planting seed from 
later pickings. Select bolls from tlirifty plants with compact 
growth of branches. The branches should have short nodes or 
joints and be abundantly supplied with bolls. Always select 
the largest bolls with long fiber. Avoid picking for seed from 
any unhealthy plants. Avoid also those bolls where the cotton 
tends to fall to the ground, as such are not "storm proof." 

If a grower is to purchase cotton seed for planting, he 
should select such varieties as will best resist disease. Varieties 
of upland cotton most abundantly planted are Peterkin, Truitt 
and Russell. In Texas, where the boll-worm and boll-weevil 
insects are present, Triumph is commonly grown. Other pro- 
ductive varieties suited to special soils or seasons are: King, 
Cook, Cleveland, Toole, and Layton. The Alabama Experi- 
ment Station reports over 200 varieties of cotton grown there. 

It is usually best for growers to select their own seed for 
planting. In every field the plants vary through all degrees 
from very good to very poor. By carefully selecting as above 
suggested the next crop can be greatly improved. 

Range of Cotton. — Cotton needs a long growing season, 
with six or more months of warm growing weather free from 
frosts. This condition is found chiefly south of latitude 37". 



122 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

It is desirable to have an abundant rainfall evenly distributed 
through the growing season, but with plenty of sunshine at 
least during the ripening months. 

Soil. — Cotton prefers a medium loam, but will thrive in 
almost any good farm soil if the conditions of temperature 
and rainfall are favorable. The soil should be deep, as the 
plant has a tap root and is n. deep feeder. If there be a clay 
subsoil it should be down about two feet from the surface. 
Good drainage is important, but there should be enough 
humus present to cause the soil to hold moisture well. When 
cotton is groA\'n each year on the same field it is well to grow 
some crop for green manure between the rows of cotton, to 
be plowed under in the fall or the next spring. Such crops 
might be cow peas, peanuts, or soy beans. As legumes to 
grow all winter in the cotton field it is well to use crimson 
clover, and winter vetch, which may be sow^i in the cotton 
field in early fall, or just after the fall plowing (Fig. 48), 

On poor sandy soil the rust disease of cotton is worse 
than on loams or heavj^ soils. If the soil is too rich, as along 
some rivers, the cotton plants grow large and coarse without 
developing much cotton. 

Preparation of Soils. — Unless there is a winter cover crop 
growing in the field, it is best to plow the soil for cotton in 
the fall. This helps to get rid of the boll-worm and boll- 
weevil, sprouts the waste cotton seed in time to be killed 
by freezing, and the old stallcs are turned under in time to 
decay and form humus. 

When cotton was grown on the field the preceding year, 
the disposal of the stalks and litter is a serious difficulty. 
Sometimes they are pulled and burned, but this is bad 
practice. It is better to beat the stalks to pieces on a frosty 
day, or drag them down with a heavy iron bar, or cut them to 
pieces with a stalk cutter made for the purpose. After they 
are broken or cut to pieces they may be readily plowed under. 

The plowing should be thorough and complete, and the 
deeper the better if no bad soil is brought to the surface by 



COTTON 123 

so doing. If this broadcast plowing is done in the fall, the 
soil may be plowed up into ridges or beds in the spring ready 
for planting. The best cotton growers are rapidly adopting 
this plan of " double preparation " of the soil — first plowing 
and then ridging. A crop of green manure may be grown on 
the land after the fall plowing. This is particularly desirable 
if the soil is very light. Small grains, winter vetch or 
crimson clover may be used. 

The ridges may be formed in spring either with a turn- 
ing plow or with a disk-harrow if the field has been first 
plowed in the fall. The plan of forming low ridges or beds 
with the disk-harrow is better, more rapid and less expensive. 

The rows for planting are marked off with a shovel plow 
and commercial fertilizer is usually distributed in this row. 
Simple drills are also in use which form the furrow, spread 
the fertilizer and then draw some soil over it. 

Fertilizers for Cotton. — The crop of cotton itself is not 
hard on the soil if the cotton seeds or their equivalent be 
returned to the field. The cotton seed is fed to stock and 
the stable manure is returned to the field without much 
loss in fertility. If the seed is sold, the grower should buy 
enough fertilizer to take its place. For every 100 pounds of 
cotton seed sold a return should be made of 3 pounds nitro- 
gen, 1 pound phosphoric acid and 1% pounds potash. In 
addition to this a liberal allowance should be made for losses 
from the soil by washing and leaching. If green manures 
are used by growing legumes, the nitrogen supply will be 
kept up and humus will be formed. Most cotton soils have 
an abundance of potash; but they respond readily to increased 
applications of phosphoric acid, increasing the yield of bolls 
and lint, and forcing earlier ripening. Too much nitrogen 
may cause a rank, " weedy " growth with little cotton. Too 
much potash delays the ripening of the crop. 

Planting. — The distance between cotton rows is 3K to 4 
feet, and 12 to 18 inches are allowed between plants in the 
row Allow about 1 to IJ^ bushels of seed per acre to insure 



124 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

a good stand of plants. Planting begins about two weeks 
later than the date of the last killing frost. March 10th or 
15th is often the time for beginning the planting near the 
Gulf coast; April 1st to 10th near the central latitude of 
the cotton belt; and early May in the northern limits of 
cotton growing. 

There are several forms of cotton planters which are not 
expensive. A good machine will drop the seed uniformly in 
a small furrow and cover it with an inch or two of soil. 

Exercise. — Let some member of the class WTite to the 
U. S. Yv'eather Bureau, at Washington, and get a table or 
report which will show the dates for the last spring frosts 
for a number of years past. From this report let the class 
determine the best date for beginning the planting of cotton. 

Cultivation. — A weeder or light harrow should be used 
over the field before planting and also after planting. This 
broadcast tillage will prevent small weeds from getting started 
ahead of the cotton plants and will also prevent the soil 
from becoming crusted. A weeder should also be used over 
the young cotton plants just before the thinning process 
begins. This may not be advisable if the stand is thin or 
the ground very stony or otherwise rough. Thinning of the 
plants is usually necessary. This is done by chopping out the 
sm-plus plants with heavy hoes. It is a good practice to culti- 
vate the individual rows, setting the shovels to throw the soil 
away from the plants, just before the thinning or chopping 
begins. Subsequent cultivation should move the soil back 
toward the plants. The cultivation should be frequent and 
shallow. It is continued until about time for picking to 
begin. When the plants completely shade the soil, a crust is 
not apt to form and further cultivation is not so necessary. 

Harvesting. — Although several machines have been 
invented for harvesting cotton, none have come into general 
use, and the cotton crop is picked by hand. It is the most 
expensive part of cotton production (Fig. 62). The price 
paid to pickers varies from 40 to 80 cents per hundred pounds 



COTTON ^^^ 

of seed cotton, or about six to twelve dollars per bale of 500 
pounds of cotton. A picker can readily average 200 pounds 
of seed cotton per day. The fields have to be gone over 
several times as the bolls do not all ripen at once. The har- 
vesting of cotton runs through September, October and 
November, and should be finished before December. 

The most productive fields will grow more than two bales 
per acre, and many more fields exceed one bale per acre, 




Courtesy of Jshnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J. 

Fig. 62. — A typical cotton-picking scene. 

but in spite of these high yields the average for the cotton 
belt is only 200 pounds or two-fifths of a bale per acre. 

On the United States " demonstration " farms in South 
Carolina the recent average yield per acre was nearly 600 
pounds, while on similar farms in that State the average was 
less than half as much. The yield in Louisiana, due to the 
United States " demonstration " methods, was increased from 
380 up to 760 pounds per acre. These facts show the value 
of studying and using better methods in cotton production. 

Problem. — A man increased his cotton yield from 200 up 
to 800 pounds per acre by selecting seed properly. The 
extra cost for such work may be estimated at 75 cents per 
acre. If he grows 22 acres of cotton, what is his profit 
due to seed selection, the selling price being 10 cents per 



126 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

pound? (Consider the extra work of picking and ginning as 
balanced by the increased seed yield.) 

Preparation for Market. — A public ginnery is usually 
found in any section where cotton is raised. The seed cotton 
is hauled from the field to the cotton gin. The suction pipes 
lift it from the wagons and take it to the gin stand, where 
it is taken over fine-toothed revolving circular saws. These 
saws separate the lint from the seeds, Y'^hich are kept from 
passing along over the revolving saws by means of long 
stationary teeth or combs. The seeds may be stored in a 
seed room of the ginnery or may be returned directly to 
the grower's wagon. The white lint (Fig. 63) is carried by 
the machine into a large hydraulic press, Wiiere it is covered 
with coarse bagging and bound by iron bands into bales of 
about 500 pounds each (Fig. 64). 

Baled cotton is too often exposed for months without 
shelter from the weather. This may darken and weaken the 
outer layers and reduce the selhng price of it all. 

Most cotton intended for shipment a long distance is put 
through a compressor to reduce the size of the bales. 

Market Grades of Cotton. — The price paid for cotton at 
any time is governed by the grade or quality. The grade 
is determined by samples taken from the bales. When a 
grower sells his cotton, the buyer usually does the grading. 
The seven principal market grades of cotton in order of 
value are: (1) fair; (2) middle fair; (3) good middling; (4) 
middling; (5) low middling; (6) good ordinary; and (7) ordi- 
nary. There are sub-divisions of these principal grades which 
are designated by prefi.^ ' ng such terms as "strict,'* "fully," 
or "barely." Most of our American cotton is poorer than 
middling fair, and grades as high or higher than middling. 

By=products of Cotton. — The chief by-product of the 
cotton crop is cottonseed. This is now used for several 
purposes. The hulls are removed by machinery. Oil is 
extracted from the kernels by cooking and pressing. Cotton 
oil is used in making salad oils, cottolene, oleomargarine, 



COTTON 



127 




Courtesy Johnson <-V Johnson. 



Fig. 63. — Inside view of ginnery, showing sheet of loose cotton lint as it comes from 
the cotton gin, juat before baling. 




i'hoto. by Russeii, Anni^'.on, Ala. Courtesy Johnson & Johnson. 



Fig. 64. — A local cotton market in Alabama, showing common form of bales. The 
cotton is too often thus exposed to weather without shelter for several months. 



128 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

soaps, and other articles. The remaining part of the seed 
after pressing out the oil is ground into cottonseed meal and 
used for stock feed, particularly for dairy cows. (See com- 
position in Appendix Table VIII.) It is also used as a fer- 
tilizer as it is so rich in nitrogen. The hulls are also used for 
stock feed and fertilizer. 

• In ginning the cotton for one bale, nearly 1000 pounds 
of seed are obtained. This amount of seed at the oil mill 
will produce about the following numbers of pounds: Oil 
150; cottonseed hulls 400; cottonseed meal 375; linters, 
trash, and dirt 75. 

The fibers of the stems and branches of the cotton plant 
are sometimes used in the manufacture of coarse grades of 
bagging. 

Diseases of Cotton. — Cotton wilt, cotton rust and cotton 
root-knot are the most common diseases likely to affect the 
crop if it is grown year after year on the same soil. If a 
good rotation of crops is kept up as with corn, wheat, and 
legumes, there is little danger from disease. 

Insect Enemies. — The cotton plant is not seriously 
affected with insects except in the squares and bolls. Two 
insects do most of this damage, the boll-weevil and the 
boll-worm. 

The Mexican boll= weevil has now spread over the south- 
eastern and central parts of Texas, much of Louisiana and 
the adjacent portions of Mississippi, Arkansas and Oklahoma. 
The area is increasing rapidly. In those sections only such 
farmers as practice the best methods of cotton culture are 
able to continue raising the crop successfully. As this insect 
spreads over the cotton belt it causes much change in the 
methods of growing the crop. 

When the insect appears in early summer, it first attacks 
the buds and the flower leaves, called "squares" (Fig. 65a). 
These soon fall to the ground. The earliest buds may escape 
the injury and develop bolls and cotton. 



COTTON 



129 



There are several methods of preventing damage from 
boll-weevil : 





Smith's Economic Entomnl 



Fig. 65a. — Cotton square, showing boll-weevil in position. Natural site. 
(After Hunter.) 

P^iG. 656. — Cotton-worm from side and above. 

1. By forcing the cotton crop to early matm-ity much 
of the loss due to weevils is overcome. The grower should 



130 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

J'orre his crop to set many bolls before weevils are abundant. 
Only the late buds will then receive the attack of the enemy, 
forcing is done in several ways : 

(a) Prepare the soil thoroughly and early. 

(b) Plant early and use enough seed for a good stand of 

plants. 

(c) Cultivate often during the growing season. 

(d) Grow varieties which set bolls early. 

(e) Select seed from early fruiting plants. 
(/) Apply phosphoric acid fertilizer liberally. 

2. Pick the cotton crop as early as may be, and immedi- 
ately destroy the entire field of plants for the purpose of 
starving the weevils several weeks before cold weather drives 
them into winter quarters under trash. The prompt destruc- 
tion of the plants after harvest may be done in either of two 
ways : (a) cattle may be turned into the field in such num- 
bers as to eat all leaves and young growth, after which the 
stalks are promptly cut up and plowed under well. (6) The 
stalks may be pulled and burned. 

3. Poisoning the early spring weevils on the growing tips 
of cotton plants is sometimes tried. For this purpose arsenate 
of lead is applied in the form of powder at the rate of 2}i 
pounds per acre. This must be done before the appearance 
of the first squares. 

4. Buds and squares which fall to the ground from the 
attacks of weevils should be caused to wilt very soon and 
thus prevent the further development of the insects which 
would soon form another brood. The wilting may be has- 
tened by planting the rows far enough apart to let sunshine in 
freely. The wilting is also increased by dragging the buds and 
squares to the open sunlight of the "middle." This is done 
by the use of a special chain cultivator devised for the purpose. 

The boll-worm (Fig. Gob) does not confine its attention 
to cotton, but prefers young corn and tomatoes (Fig. 66). 
It is the same insect which we call the corn "ear-worm." 



COTTON 




Smith's Economic Entomology, 

Fig, 66.— Work of cotton-woric or corn ear-worm, on corn and tomato. 



132 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

After the nearby corn crops have passed the tender stage of 
the ears the future broods attack the squares and bolls of 
the cotton field. 

The best remedies are based upon this habit of the 
insects : 

1. Produce an early crop by the methods already sug- 
gested. Thus the cotton crop will be too far advanced to 
be injured when the attacks of the boll-worms begin. 

2. Use com as a trap crop by planting at several different 
times, either near the cotton field or alternating three rows 
with every thirty rows of cotton. As the corn passes the 
tender stage it may be fed to cows, and the young insects 
thus destroyed (Fig. 66). 

3. Plow the fields in the fall to destroy the winter 
quarters of boll- worms. 

REVIEW. 

1. Tell something of the early history of cotton growing. 

2. How did the invention of the cotton gin help the cotton in- 
dustry of the world? 

3. Name the leading cotton growing States of America. 

4. In what ways are the other States of the Union interested in 
this great crop? 

5. What fraction of the world's crop do we produce? 

6. What other countries are important cotton producers? 

7. WTiat three types of cotton do we grow? 

8. Describe the best climate and best soil for cotton. 

9. Give some reasons for plowing cotton fields in the fall. 

10. Give other steps in the preparation of soil for cotton planting. 

1 1 . Tell of the uses of a weeder on a cotton field. 

12. Give distances and methods of planting cotton. 

13. Tell all you can about the picking of cotton. 

14. How does a cotton gin pick the hnt from the seeds? 

15. Mention the seven principal market grades of cotton; which 
three are most commonly produced here? 

16. Mention several uses of the different by-products of the cotton 
crop. 

17. What is the best remedy for the cotton diseases mentioned? 

18. Where is the Mexican boll-weevil now most destructive? 

19. Mention four ways of combating this insect. 

20. Mention six ways of forcing an early cotton crop. 

21. Give three ways of fighting the boll-worm. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins : 501, Cotton 
Improvement under Weevil Conditions; 512, Boll Weevil Problem; 
555, Cotton Anthracnose; 577, Egyptian Cotton in Arizona; 591, 
Grading of Cotton; 601, New Methods of Cotton Culture; 625, Cotton 
Wilt and Root Knot; 735, Red Spider on Cotton. 



CORN 133 



CHAPTER XIII 
CORN. 

When America was first explored the natives were grow- 
ing this crop, hence the name Indian corn. The plant was 
not known in the Old World before that. It has been much 
improved by breeding and selection since that time. 

Importance. — It is far the most important field crop now 
grown in the United States. In money value it is more 
than double our wheat crop or cotton crop, in the average 
year. In number of bushels corn is approximately four times 
as large as any other grain crop of America. Probably three- 
fourths of the world's com is grown in the United States. 
Although the crop is grown to some extent in every state of 
the Union, the seven "com belt" states grow from one-half 
to two-thirds of the crop. These states are Illinois, Iowa, 
Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio. 

The Corn Crop. — Corn is king and alfalfa is queen. These 
two crops go together very well. On dairy farms, where 
these two crops are raised for the stock, we find very little 
outside feed is purchased. They cut down the feed bills 
enormously. Too few farmers in the dairy sections are trying 
alfalfa; and too many farmers are not doing their best even 
in the com fields. 

Winter is the time to make plans for the corn crop for the 
following spring. If the seed is not on hand it should be 
secured and tested for its germinating powers. Winter is a 
good time to plan the fields and decide how much corn ground 
will be used for production of green forage, how much for 
ensilage, if any, and how much for winter fodder and ears. 

Types of Corn. — The four main types of corn raised in 
America are pop com, sweet corn, flint corn, and dent com. 
The last two are both spoken of as f^eld com. 



134 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Flint Com has a hard kernel which is short and rounded, 
with no dent in the top. There are only a few rows of kernels 
on the cob, eight rows being quite common. Flint com ma- 
tures quickly and is often grown where the warm season is 
short. There are several colors and a number of varieties 
(Fig. 67, Nos. 4, 10, 12, 14). 

Dent Corn has a longer kernel with a dent in the crown or 
top. The ears are large and the yield per acre is greater 
than with any other type. The many varieties or breeds of 




Fio. 67. — Com kernels of different shapes. Number 3 is one of the best. 

cur 



(Agri- 



tural Education.) 

dent com vary in color, length of season for ripening, shape 
of kernel, size, shape, and length of ear, character of stalks, 
and in other ways. White and yellow are the commonest 
colors. The people in certain sections prefer white varieties, 
while in others the yellow com is groMTi entirely. Com does 
not vary in quality because of its color, but when white or 
yellow meal is preferred in certain markets the millers will 
buy corn of that color only. 

Exercise. — Kinds of Corn. — Have some of the best 



CORN 



135 



samples of the different types of com brought to school by 
pupils. The ears should be wrapped in paper to prevent 
shelling. These may be compared and studied by use of a 
score card. Save the ears for future use in com testing. 

Rules for Selecting or Judging Corn. — Seed com should 
always be purchased on the cob if possible. Then we can 
tell whether the ears are of the type we want, or not. Too 
often the shelled corn we get comes from ears we would not 
try to grew if we saw them. 

The following explanation of points should be used in 
selecting com for seed, and also in judging corn at exhibits. 

B 




I " . ' - I ' I'll ot B()\ s' Kxperiment Club in Nebraska. (Agrhcultural Educa- 

tion J B, rnze-winning corn and the boy who grew it. (O.B.Martin.) 

The com exhibits may be held at school each winter and the 
score card used by the students and the judges. Ten ears of 
com will constitute a sample. 

1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics. — All the 
ears selected should possess similar or like characteristics, and 
should be true to the variety which they represent (Fig. 68). 
Two representative kernels should be taken from each ear and 
placed germ side up in front of the ear and studied in con- 
nection with type in the ear. 

2. Shape of Ear. — In shape the ears should conform to 
variety type. Each ear should be full and strong in the cen- 

10 



136 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



tral portion and not taper too rapidly toward the tip. This 
is indicative of strong constitution and good yield (Fig. 69). 

3. Purity of Ear; (a) Grain. — In color the kernels should 
be true to variety and free from mixture. Difference in shade 
of color, as light or dark red, white or cream color, must be 
scored according to variety characteristics, (b) Cob. — An 
ear of white com should have a white cob; yellow com should 
have a red cob; if mixed, mark it zero. A mixture reduces the 
value of the com for seed purposes, indicates lack of purity„ 




Fig. C9. — Good seed com. The upper ear shows good even rows with very- 
narrow spaces between rows and between kernels, llie tips of the cob should be 
covered with corn. There is a good deep impression and small stem shown at the 
left. The kernels are deep as compared with the size of the cob, as showTi. (U. S. 
Fanners' Bulletin 229.J 

and tends toward a too wide variation in time of maturity, 
size, and shape of kernels (Fig. 70). 

4. Vitality or Seed Condition. — Com should be in good 
market condition; show good constitution, and be capable of 
producing plants of strong, vigorous growth and hea\y yield. 
All indicatione of freezing or other injury from exposure and 
all evidences of immaturity show poor vitality. Com with 
adhering chaff, or a black tip, caused by the tip cap adhering 
to the cob, is not in good condition. 

5. Tips (Fig. 69) should be regiriar, uniform, and prop- 
erly proportioned with the body of the ear. The rows should 



CORN 



137 



be well carried out and the kernels conform closely to those 
in the main body of the ear in shape and size. The propor- 
tion to tip covered or filled must be considered. Long pointed 
tips as well as enlarged or double tips are objectionable. 

6. Butts. — The rows of kernels (Fig. 69) should extend in 
regular order over the butt, leaving a deep depression when 
the stem is removed. Opened and swelled butts, depressed 
and flat butts with flattened glazed kernels are objectionable. 

7. Kernels. — (a) The kernels should be uniform in size 
and shape, making it possible so to grade the com as to secure 




Fio. 70. — Large cob on the left with small layer of com, Small cob on the right 
with deep layer of com. 

even dropping by the planting machine. This is essential to 
securing a good stand. Not only should the kernels be uni- 
form on the individual ear but they should be uniform with 
all the ears selected, (h) The shape of kernels should be such 
that their edges touch from tip to crown (see Fig. 67, 3). The 
tip portion of the kernel is rich in protein and oil, and hence 
of high feeding value. Kernels with large germs insure strong, 
vigorous growth as well as richness in quality of kernel. Germs 
should be large, showing strength and high feeding value 
(Figs. 71, 72). 



138 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



8. Length of Ear. — The length of the ear varies according 
to variety, type and the characteristics sought by the indi- 
vidual farmer. Uniformity of length is to be sought in a 
sample, and a sample having even length of ears should score 
higher than one that varies, even if it is within the limits (Fig. 
73). The usual length of cars for the northern section for dent 
com is 7 to 9 inches; central section, 83^ to 9}^ inches; soutb- 



Fia. 71. 




Fig. 72. 




Fig. 71. — Sections and surface views of kernels of com. Tlie three on the right 
show large germs and have much protein, those on the left small germs and less 
protein. (Agricultural Education.) 

Fig. 72. — Diagram of a section of corn kernel, enlarged, showing the locations 
of starch, embryo, horny part rich in protein, and the protein layer under the Iiull. 
In kernels where the germ is large and the horny part is large toward the tip there 
is much protein. Such com makes the best feed and should be selected when choos- 
ing seed corn. 

em section, 10 to 12 inches. Very long ears are objectionable, 

as they usually have poor butts and tips, shallow kernels and 
hence less corn on the cob. Same varieties produce several 
small ears on each stalk. 

9. Circumference of Ear. — The circumference of the ear 
should be in symmetry with its length. An ear too great in 
circumference for its length is generally slow in maturing, and 
too frequently results in soft f orn. Dimensions for the north- 



CORN 



139 



em section for dent corn are 63^ to 7 inches in circumference ; 
central section, 6^ to 734 inches; southern section, 7 to 8 
inches. Measure the circumference at one-third the distance 
from the butt to the tip of the ear. 

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows. — The furrows between the 
rows of kernels should be of sufficient size to allow the com to 
dry readity, but not so large as to lose in proportion of corn to 
cob. (h) Space. Between Tips of Kernels at Cob. — This is very 




Fig. 73. — Finest com in the world. These ten ears won a thousand-dollar prize 
at Omaha in 1908. (Agricultural Education.^ 



objectionable, as it indicates immaturity, poor constitution, 
and poor feeding value. 

11. Proportion of Corn to Cob. — Depth of kernels, size of 
cob, maturity, furrows and space at cob all affect the propor- 
tion. The corn may be selected and judged by those features. 
But if scales are available the proportion of corn is determined 
by weight. In determining the proportion of com to cob, 
weigh and shell an average ear in the sample. Weigh cob and 
subtract from weight of ear. This will give weight of com; 
divide weight of corn by total weight of ear, which will give 
per cent of com. Per cent of com should be from 86 to 87. 
For each per cent short of standard, a cut of one and one-half 
points should be made. 



140 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

SCORE CARD FOR CORN JUDGING. 

Perfect 
Score, 

1. Tnieness to Type or Breed Characteristics 10 

2. Shape of Ear 10 

3. Purity of Ear. (a) Grain 5 

(6) Cob 5 

4. VitaUty or Seed Conditions 15 

5. Tips 5 

6. Butts 5 

7. Kernels, (a) Uniformity 5 

(6) Shape 10 

8. Length of Ear ■ 5 

9. Circumference of Ear 5 

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows 5 

{b) Space Between Tips of Kernels at Cob 5 

11. Proportion of Corn to Cob 10 

Total Points 100 

Testing Seed Corn. — No farmer can afford to use corn 
for seed which is not the best he can get. It should be care- 
fully selected along the lines laid down in the rules given in 
this chapter. Then it should be subjected to a germination 
test of the individual ears. Any method that will enable a 
corn grower to know the percentage of germination of each 
individual ear of corn can be used to make the test. If you 
test five kernels taken from different parts of an ear of corn 
and two of them do not germinate and three do, it is a pretty 
good indication that sixty per cent of the kernels of the ear 
will grow and forty per cent will not. This means that four 
hundred out of a possible one thousand kernels of that ear 
will fail if planted in the field. The farmer using such corn 
for seed would get only a sixty per cent stand, which means 
a very poor crop. He would waste two days out of every 
five spent in cultivating such a field, because two-fifths of 
the field would be bare ground. 

How to Test. — The ears of corn may be tested as clearly 
shown in Fig, 74. First arrange a germination box; any 
shallow flat box will do; place in it some clean wet sand or 
wet sawdust to a depth of about one inch ( Fig. 75 ) . 



CORN 



141 



Mark off squares two by two inches with a black lead pencil 
on white cloth; number these squares 1, 2, 3, etc.; wet the 
cloth and spread it over the wet sawdust so the numbers 
are in plain view. Next number all the ears of corn by using 




Fio. 74. — A box tester for seed corn. Upon muslin cloth squares are drawn and 
nuInbe^ed. On each square are laid five kernels from an ear of the same number. 
When the tester is filled, the sawdust shown at the left is placed to keep the grain moist. 

Uttle squares of paper, which are held to the butt end of the 
ears with small nails pushed through the numbered papers 
and then into the cobs. Now take five kernels from different 
parts of each ear, not using any from near the tip nor butt. 



A 


B 




■ / '•': '^^iW : 



Fio. 75. — A. Testing indi^^dual ears of seed com by the moist cloth method. 
The tray is ready to be covered with another wet cloth and moist sawdust. 
B. The tray of corn shown in Fig. A. 



Put the five kernels from the first ear on the first square of 
cloth, and so on for the rest of the ears (Fig. 75). It is well 
to place the germ sides upward so the sprouts will show well 
afterwards. Cover the kernels with a plain wet cloth and 



142 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



spread over it a layer of wet sawdust. Keep the box in a 
warm room for two weeks or less, keeping it damp all the time. 




Fig. 76. — Germination test of com, showins; healthy and weak germination. (Agri- 
cultural Education. ) 

The Results. — Raise the top cloth and thus remove the 
upper layer of sawdust. Look over the germination cloth 
and see what ears fail to give a perfect result. These should 
be removed and not used for seed (Fig. 76) . 



i'"- 




































roLJi 






• « H £ 














u 
































.1 




2 


4 


b 


» 


to 


12 


M 


K> 


I& 


SO 


« 


M 


S6 


<8 


M 


e 


































































o 


1 


A 


fi 


7 


9 


II 


k» 


I& 


17 


l<* 


■21 


ti 


tb 


«7 


«<» 




A" " 
































" 


POCfi 




HCRf. 





Fic. 70(2. — R.ag doll tester for individual ears. 

Rag Doll Tester. — One of the simplest methods of test- 
ing com, or seed of any kind, is to roll it in wet cloth and keep 
it damp until it has time to germinate. 

The individual ears should be numbered before the test. 
Take a piece of cloth, say 12 by 36 inches, Mark it off in the 
manner shown in the diagram (Fig. 76a), using a soft black 
pencil. Take five kernels at random from the first ear to 
place on space numbered 1. Continue this for the thirty ears. 



CORN 143 

Do not use kernels from the butts and tips of the ears. Fold 
the cloth edges over the com to hold it in place. Lay 
your pencil across the end and roll the cloth up carefully. 
Put a rubber or string around it and the "doll" is made. In 
farm practice a number of cloths maj^ be used so as to test 
enough seed for large fields. The thirty ears on one cloth 
might be enough for two acres. 

Soak the "dolls" in water for about one day. Then 
remove from the water and place in a covered jar to keep them 
moist a few days mitil germination takes place. 

Then unroll carefully and examine and decide what ears 
are low in germination. Write down the percentages for list 
of numbered ears in your note -book. Then locate and dis- 
card the ears that are not good for planting. 

CORN CULTURE. 
Soil and Fertilizers. — It hardly pays to try to grow 
much corn on poor soil. There may be other crops, such as 
cowpeas or oats, that would thrive on poor soil better than 
com. Rather rich medium or heavy loam is admirably 
adapted to corn growing. If moisture conditions are favor- 
able com may be grown on a wide variety of soils. The 
lighter soils may become too dry in the summer, and the 
undrained muck soils may remain wet and cold in the early 
part of the growing season. The latter soils may produce 
heavy growths of stalks and leaves, but fail to mature much 
sound grain. 

Barnyard manure should be applied to uplands for the 
best growth of corn, as organic matter and nitrogen are very 
beneficial for the crop. Heavy soils are much improved by 
plowing under green manure crops and barnyard manure. 

Preparing the Soil. — The best corn growers insist on the 
early plowing of the ground for com, unless it was fall plowed. 
It should be plowed a month or six weeks before the date of 
planting. If the ground was in sod, the disc harrow may be 
used soon after the plow. During the balance cf the time the 



144 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




smoothing harrow should be used every ten days or soon 
after each heavy rain. This is to prevent the crusting of the 
ground and the loss of moisture. Each harrowing of the 
ground helps to keep the moisture in the soil where it will 
be ready for the roots of the corn next 
summer when the dry weather sets in. 

In regions where the soil is heavj'' the 
field should be well stirred up again just 
before planting, using a spring-tooth 
harrow, disc harrow or a pulverizer set 
very deep. 

Methods of Planting. — Corn is usu- 
all}^ planted either by hand-power planters 
or horse-power planters. The depth to 
plant varies with the quality and moisture 
of the soil. In a moist clay loam one 
inch is deep enough; but in a dry, sandy 
soil three or four inches is better. 

Exercise. — Depth to Plant Corn. — 

Plant com at several different depths in 

two kinds of soil, one rather dry and 

sandy, the other heavy and rather moist 

(Fig. 77). These should be in two separate bottles or boxes. 

In each case, note the time required for the young plants 

to reach the surface. 

Distances for Planting. — There are three ways of plant- 
ing for three different purposes. 

If we plan to cut the crop for green forage, to feed in 
summer when pastures become dry and short, we should drill 
the com in rows so the stalks will stand three or four inches 
apart all along the rows. This plan will produce an im- 
mense tonnage of green feed for summer use, but the yield 
of ears will be light. (See Chap. X.) A southem white 
variety would be good for this purpose. 

If we want the crop to cut in September for winter fodder or 
ensilage it is well to have the stalks about a foot apart in the 



Fig. 7 7. — Corn 
planted at different 
Qepths to show time 
required for sprouting 
and \'igor after sprout- 
ing. (Agricultural Edo- 
cation.) 



CORN 145 

rows. This will result in the greatest total yield of nutrients 
in the stalks and ears. A good variety for this purpose would 
be one which would ripen in the region where planted. 

The third plan is to have the stalks stand three in a hill 
and hills three feet apart in the row, with rows four feet apart 
or a little less. This is the plan followed in the great corn 
region of the middle West. Usually the hills are in rows both 
ways for greater ease of cultivation. The so-called hill plan 
or check-row plan gives the greatest yields of ear corn. These 
are not real hills, as corn should not be hilled up. There are 
good local varieties in different sections. These usually prove 
better for the locality than any other from a distance. 

Planting Dates. — It is not entirely safe to go by the 
calendar in deciding when to plant corn. If the soil is pre- 
pared early and thoroughly so that the warm air can enter it, 
the time of planting may be hastened. The crop should not 
be planted until after the last killing frost is past. 

The Year Book of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture gives the following dates for three regions : 

Gulf States, March 15 to May 10, and April 5 most general. 

Central States, Virginia to Kansas, April 15 to May 25, 
and May 1 most general. 

Northern States, New York to Minnesota, May 10 to 
June 1, and May 20 most general. 

Tillage. — As soon as the seed is planted we can use the 
smoothing harrow and continue to use it after each heavy 
rain as soon as the soil loses its sticky character. Have no 
fear of injuring the little corn plants except in the early morn- 
ing when the plants are too full of moisture, or in very stony 
fields. If this system of harrowing the corn after it is up is 
followed, there will be very few weeds to be seen in the field. 
It is much faster work to harrow the field, taking several rows 
at a time, than it is to use the cultivator, one row at a time. 

When the corn is high enough so the cross-bars of the 
harrow tend to break off the plants, use a weeder or a fine- 
toothed cultivator a number of times to keep a fine soil- 



146 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




mulch on the field. If the weather conditions should be such 
as to keep the cultivator out of the field too long at a time, 
the ground will form a crust. Then it will be necessary to 
make the cultivator teeth go deep enough to break up and 

pulverize the crust. But when 
no crust is formed always keep 
the shovels or teeth quite shal- 
low (Fig. 78). 

Harvesting Seed Corn. — 
It pays the farmer well to select 
his own seed com. This is best 
done in the fall, just before 
frost and before harvesting 
the main crop. Such ears are 
selected as have the characters 
described in the rules given, 
pages 133-137. Pick out the 
ones that are most mature; 
they will be hanging dowTiward. 
Take them from stalks which 
bear two or more good ears. 
Storing Seed Corn. — As soon as the ears are selected and 
gathered the husks should be entirely removed from them. 
Store the ears where the moisture will dry out well before 
winter, and where mice will not attack them. A good way is 
to tie the ears with cord in such a way that they will not touch 
each other and suspend each lot from a hook in the ceiling 
where mice will not bother the corn. Corn may be stored on 
sheets of finely woven wire netting which is tacked to the bare 
rafters or joists of a dry room, as a shop or attic. If there are 
vertical posts in the room, headless nails may be driven part 
way into the posts; and then the large ends of the ears are 
slipped over the nails (Fig. 79). 

Harvesting the Main Crop. — To secure the best return 
from the corn crop the harvesting should include not only 
the ears but also the stalks. This should be done as soon as 



Fig. 78. — Corn plants half grown, 
showing the root system. Many small 
fibrous feeding roots are only a few 
inches under ground between the rows 
of corn. Deep cultivation is likely to 
destroy many of them. 



CORN 



147 



the ears are nearly ripe, after the kernels are hard. With 
most all field corn grown in the northern states the growth 
continues until about the time of the first fall frosts. 

There are several plans in use in various sections for the 
harvesting of the corn crop. 

1. The farmer can more nearly secure the entire value 
of the corn crop by cutting the whole stalks just at the proper 
time and putting it in the silo. The 
stalks and ears are run through a 
cutting machine (Fig. 80), and the 
finely cut forage is blown or taken by 
a carrier into a silo. This is called 
ensilage. For the making of good 
ensilage the corn crop should be well 
matured, the kernels glazed and 
well-dented, and the husks partially 
dried. 

2. In all dairy sections the stalks 
are usually saved and fed after the 
ears are removed. This is called 
stover. First the whole crop is cut, 
by hand or by machines, and put into 
shocks. This should be done before 
the leaves become brown and the 
stalks dry. The shocks are tied very 
tightly near the top to avoid weath- 
ering. Later the ears are husked from 
the shock, and the stover is tied in large bundles and stored 
under shelter. The husked ears are first put in piles on the 
ground and then hauled to the crib. 

3. Husking and shredding machines are often used in 
some sections. The corn fodder from the shocks, after it is 
well cured, is run through a machine which husks and snaps 
off the ears and shreds the stalks. This is one of the best 
ways to use the whole crop after it is cured. 




Fia. 79.- — Corn-drjing rack. 



148 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



4. Stripping the blades of corn before the ears are har- 
vested is quite common in some parts of the South. The labor 
is too great to compensate for the crop of forage thus secured. 

5. Topping is a name given to the practice, in some 
localities, of cutting the stalks just above the ears. This is 
as much labor as to cut and shock the whole crop. 




Fig. 80. — Silo filling. This silo is made from wooden staves and steel hoops, 
a structure common in the Eastern States. The ears and stalks are cut fine and 
carried up into the silo by the endless chain. 



6. In some sections the ears are husked from the stand- 
ing stalks late in fall or in winter. This is done by driving 
through the field with a wagon having a large box, into which 
the ears of corn are thrown by the men doing the husking. 
The stalks are wasted, but cattle are sometimes allowed to 
"pick over" the field and eat the ears that were skipped. A 
considerable amount of fodder is aleo eaten by the stock. 



CORN" 149 

7. In some southern sections where the attacks of the 
grain weevils are bad, it has become the practice to jerk 
the ears and store them unhusked. The work required to 
jerk the com and afterwards husk it is greater than husking 
from the standing stalks. But most of the jerked corn is 
fed to stock without husking. 

Ensilage Most Economical. — The entire feeding value 
of the corn crop is best saved in silos. The ears, stalks, and 
leaves, cut up very fine at harvest time, are saved for the 
feeding of stock in winter or in the drj^ season of the summer. 
The product is called silage or ensilage. (See chapter on feeds 
and feeding.) 

Silos are often made of staves with steel or wooden hoops. 
Some are made by standing up studding in the form of a circle 
and then nailing two layers of half-inch lumber bent around 
inside, with tar-paper between the layers. 

Masonry silos may be made of (1) concrete reinforced 
with steel rods; (2) brick with reinforcing bands; (3) stone; 
(4) hollow tile blocks with reinforcing rods or wires. 

Metal silos are found in some sections. 

In dry climates silos are entirely below ground, and in 
other regions they are often placed about six feet in the 
ground and the masonry wall extends one or two feet above 
the surface for protection of the wooden superstructure. 

Silos should be round in form to prevent the silage from 
spoiling in the comers. The silage is thoroughly tramped, 
particularly at the edges, at filling time to make it to settle 
well. 

Roofs may or may not be used as desired in cold climates 
having much snowfall. Rainfall is usually considered bene- 
ficial, and water is often run into the silo at filling time if the 
crop is rather mature. 

The capacity of silos increases more with the depth than 
with the area of the surface. This is because the silage is 
packed so closely in very deep silos. The following table, 



150 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



adapted from King, shows the number of tons of mature silage 
in round silos of different diameters and depths : 

Approximate Capacity of Silos. 



Depth of 


Inside diameter of silo, feet 


silo, feet 


10 


12 


14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


25 


36 


52 


70 


81 


90 


116 


143 


26 


38 


55 


74 


85 


97 


123 


152 


27 


40 


58 


78 


90 


103 


130 


160 


28 


42 


61 


83 


95 


108 


137 


169 


29 


45 


64 


88 


100 


114 


144 


178 


30 


47 


68 


93 


105 


119 


151 


187 


31 


49 


70 


96 


110 


125 


158 


195 


32 


51 


73 


101 


115 


131 


166 


205 


36 


64 


105 


130 


139 


155 


190 


235 


40 


75 


121 


150 


165 


180 


228 


279 



Storing the Ears. — Corn should be stored in a crib with 
slatted sides to allow the air to circulate freely. The roof 
should be broad, and rain proof, to keep the com entirely 
free from external moisture. Corn should be kept on the cob, 
at least until it is thoroughly dry, to prevent heating and 
molding. It is best to protect the crib of com from mice, 
rats, and sparrows. For this purpose the floor and sides 
of the crib are sometimes covered with galvanized wire 
netting of about one-fourth-inch mesh. 

Storing the Stover. — Corn stalks intended for feed should 
not be exposed for a long time to the weather. Com thus 
exposed loses much of its feeding value. It is much better 
to put it under shelter in bams or in sheds. The corn stalks 
should be thoroughly dried before storing for winter. If the 
fall weather be very damp, much care must be exercised 
to prevent the stover from heating in the sheds. When com 
stover has been shredded, it is sometimes stored in laj-ers 
alternating with dry straw. 

CORN CLUBS 

Much interest has been aroused in the improvement of 
varieties of com, and in the increased production per acre, 
through the boys' corn clubs. 

New Standard for Corn. — In sections of the United 



CORN 



151 



States where the average yield has been comparatively small 
for many years, the boys have set an entirely new high stand- 
ard in corn yields per acre. For instance, in Alabama, one 
boy grew 232.7 bushels per acre in 1913, whereas the average 
yield for corn in the United States is 30 bushels per acre. 
These noticeable and startling improvements were made by 
r 




Flo. 81. — A prize-winning field of corn in Virginia and the boy who grew it. He 
used the correct methods. (O. B. Alartin, Plant Industry.) 

the selection of improved seed, followed by careful and per- 
sistent tillage. 

Value of Clubs. — Other boj^s, encouraged by such re- 
sults, are led to exert their best efforts to do as well as this 
Alabama lad did. By belonging to a club the boys are spurred 
to greater activities because of wholesome competition. 
This is a good thing. If farmers could feel some of the same 
thrilling interest in their work — if all farming had some of 
the spice of competition in it — there would be fewer run- 
down farms, fewer tenant farmers, less farming for a bare 
living, and more and better crop production, as well as hap- 
pier, more contented people on the farms of our country. 
11 



152 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Organization of Clubs. — If it is desired to organize a 
Corn Club in your school or neighborhood, confer with the 
County Demonstration, or Farm Bureau Agent. Get hun to 
assist in perfecting the plans. If there is a district or state 
club leader, consult him also. Your state agricultural college 
will be glad to help, or the United States Department of 
Agriculture will furnish printed matter telling how to pro- 




FiQ. 82. — The same boy as in Fig. 81 in his neighbor's field the same day. Compare 
the cornfields. (O. B. Martin, Plant Industry.) 

ceed with the organization. Generally the younger pupils 
are organized in separate clubs from the older ones. 

The basis of club work is usually estimated on (1) the 
greatest yield per acre; (2) greatest profit on investment; (3) 
best ten ears sho^\Ti; (4) report and story of work done. 

Report blanks are furnished free by the United States 
Department of Agriculture, and every club should obtain 
them so as to make its work uniform. 

Keeping Notes. — Every member of the club should keep 
careful notes of his work, his expenses, and all interesting items 
in connection with raising his crop. He should be able to give 
in his report at the end of the season the exact amount of hand 
labor, horse labor, seed, fertilizer, and everything else expended 
on his crop, as well as the exact yield and the value of it. 



CORN 153 

If he can select a considerable quantity of extra fine corn 
from his crop, carefully preserve it through the winter, test 
it in the spring, and sell it at a fancy price for seed, he will be 
doing a good stroke of business and may be able to start a 
bank account or pay his way at an agricultural college. 

Corn Festival. — In the corn belt or in any section where 
there is much interest shown in the raising of improved vari- 
eties of corn, a com festival makes an interesting get-together 
event for the neighborhood. 

At this time the corn club may have its exhibit and listen 
to the final reports of its members. Prizes to be awarded for 
the best crops should be given at this time. There should be 
ribbons for those doing extra well, and honorable mention 
for others. All should be encouraged as much as possible. 

Many corn contests are to be arranged for this com festi- 
val, such as corn picking in the field, corn husking, corn judg- 
ing and others. 

Methods of selecting, curing, and caring for seed com, 
also seed testing, should be discussed. 

The girls, for their share of the entertainment, may furnish 
com bread and other dishes made of corn for the picnic dinner. 

Some pupil should give the history of com, and some one 
else should read a paper on the uses of com — both its direct 
uses and its by-products. 

Parents should enter into this heartily with their children, 
and should not be slow in welcoming new methods nor be 
afraid to adopt the new ideas. It is not "good business" to 
hold onto an old farm practice when a better one is at hand 
and may be used. 

REVIEW. 

1. Briefly describe the preparation of soil for corn planting. 

2. Give directions for tlie planting of corn for summer green feed. 

3. Give distances for planting corn used as winter forage or silage. 

4. What is meant by " hill" corn ? What is its chief use ? 

5. Name four types of corn grown in America. 

6. Describe dent corn. 

7. Describe flint corn. 

- Tell when to select com for seed. 



154 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

9. Describe the best shape of ears of field com. 

10. What things indicate purity of corn ? 

11. Give the points which indicate vitahty, besides the test. 

12. Describe good tips and butts of ears of corn. 

13. Why should the kernels be uniform in shape ? 

14. Describe the best shape and give the reasons. 

15. Why should ears of corn for seed be uniform in length and cir« 
cumf erence ? 

16. Why do we object to deep furrows between rows and open 
spaces between the tips of the kernels at the cob ? 

17. Name five things which aid in determining the proportion of 
corn to cob. 

18. Give two things to be considered when storing seed corn. 

19. Give three good ways of storing seed corn. 

20. Give a good reason for the individual ear method of testing corn. 

21. Describe a seed testing cloth and box for that purpose. 

22. How would you keep the ears from being mixed during the 
testing time ? 

23. Tell how to select the kernels that are to be put into the tester. 

24. What use may be made of the ears which do not show perfect 
germination ? 

25. Mention several methods of haxvesting the main crop of com. 

26. WTiat types of siios are found in your district? 

27. What corn club work is carried on in your district? 

References. — ITnited States Farmers' Bulletins relating to corn: 
229, The F*roduction of Good Seed Corn; 537, How to Grow an Acre of 
Corn; 553 and 554, Pop Corn; 578, Silage; 589, Homemade Silos; 617, 
School Lessons on Corn; 414 and 729, Corn Culture. 



-CHAPTER XIV.— 

SMALL GRAINS. 

Wheat. — Wheat is probably the oldest grain used by 
man. It is more extensively growTi and used than any other 
human food except perhaps rice. When flour is made from 
it the by-products are now extensively used to feed animals. 
In America the newer lands in some portions of the West 
produce the largest crops of wheat, but the grain is grown 
somewhat in all sections. 

Types of Wheat. — As a general rule, the drier regions of 
the middle West produce hard winter wheat or hard spring 
wheat, best for flour; the humid climates produce soft wheats. 



SMALL GRAINS 



155 



Varieties are also classified by the heads, as bearded and 
beardless or smooth (Fig. 83) . As to color of grain they may 
be (1) white or yellowish, and (2) red varieties. 

Soil. — The heavy clay loams are best for wheat growing 
but medium loams are also used. Heavy soils are cool and 
hold their moisture better than lighter soils. The kernels 
will not develop fully, or "fill," if the soil is too light. 





Fig. 83. — Three types of wheat mounted under glass on cotton. Bearded wheai 
on the right; the otiiers are smooth; square-head wheat on left. 

Preparation and Planting. — The soil is usually plowed in 
the early fall, whether it be for winter or for spring wheat. 
It is important that the bottom soil be well packed down 
before the grain is sown. For fall seeding the ground may be 
rolled and then harrowed again to secure the desired con- 
dition of seed bed. 



156 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

The time to plant varies considerably in different sec- 
tions. In Canada and the northern tier of States the spring 
wheats are usually used and are sown as early in the spring 
as the soil can be prepared. Winter wheat is more common 
in the other States and is sown early enough in the fall to 
let the young plants make a good growth before winter, 

A grain drill is usually used for the sowing of wheat. This 
gives a better stand than broadcasting or sowing by hand, 
as the seed is evenly distributed and well covered. The 
amount of seed per acre varies — according to soil, quality 
of seed and manner of seeding — from one and a half to three 
bushels. 

Heavy seed wheat should always be selected for seeding. 
The plump, full kernels will give much better results than 
slender shrunken seed (Fig. 9). The legal weight in all States 
is sixty pounds per bushel. That used for seed should weigh 
this much or more if possible. 

Harvesting. — Wheat is ripe when the kernels have passed 
the dough or soft stage. The kernels should be examined 
before the cutting is made. Cut before there is danger of 
the grain shattering out of the head. 

Much progress has been made in the improvement of 
machines used for harvesting grain. The cutting and binding 
into bundles is done with a self-binder (Fig. 84) . Then the 
grain is put into small shocks of about a dozen bundles. 
Here it remains in the field for a week or two to "cure." 
It is then ready to thresh or to put in stacks. 

In the driest regions of the West the grain is headed and 
threshed immediately. Heading is cutting the stems just 
below the grain heads with special machines made for that 
method of harvesting. 

Oats. — Oats grow farther north than corn or wheat. 
They like a cool moist climate, and have been grown in the 
cooler parts of the Old World for centuries. They are now 
produced in Canada and most of the States of the Union. 



SMALL GRAINS 157 

Oats make one of the best feeds for horses, and when ground 
are used for other farm stock. Oatmeal in the form of rolled 
oats forms a good human food. Oat straw is better for stock 
than the straw of other cereals. 

Soil. — Oats will grow on soils that are rather too poor 
for wheat, but they thrive best on the richer soils. Heavier 
crops of grain are produced if the soil is heavy. The crop 
responds well to good applications of fertilizer, if too much 
nitrogen is not used. Too much nitrogen in the soil produces 
tall growth and little grain. 




Fig. 84. — A modem grain hanester. All unall >;raiiis are cut and Ixjuml into 
bundles by this machine, llie iy'uig. pan ui tlie niacliiiie is one ol ilie greatest 
inventions of modern times. 



. Preparation. — Good plowing and harrowing are advisable 
before the crop is sown. The lower soil of the seed bed 
should be well packed down if the plowing is done only a 
short time before seeding. In some sections the soil is merely 
stirred with a disc harrow instead of plowing. This custom 
prevails in the middle West, when oats are sown the next 
year after corn. A more thorough preparation if the soil 
is heavj^ usually gives larger yields. 

Seeding is done in very early spring throughout the 
Northern States and Canada. In the South oats are started 
in the fall. The seeding may be either broadcast or with grain 



158 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

drills. Two or three bushels of seed are used per acre, 
according to fertility and method of seeding. Very heavy 
seed should be selected. Thirty-two pounds is the legal 
weight of a bushel of oats in all States except Virginia, New 
Jersey, Idaho, and Maryland. The grain selected for seed 
should be as heavy as thirty-eight or forty pounds per 
bushel. 

Harvesting. — There is a little less danger of the oats 
shattering from the heads when cut than there is with wheat; 
but in general the same condition of maturity should be 
secured. The grain is cut and bound with self-binders and 
then placed in shocks, where it is left for several weeks to 
thoroughly dry out before threshing. 

Barley. — There are several types or varieties of barley 
grown in America, which may be grouped as two-row, four- 
row, and six-row; the numbers referring to the rows of grain 
on the heads. The two-row barley is more common in Europe 
and the six-row more common in America. Most all varieties 
have hulls on the grain, but hulless varieties are sometimes 
grown. 

Barley adapts itself to a wide range of climate, as the 
time required for maturing a crop is very short. It is found 
wherever any of the other cereals are grown. 

Soil and Its Preparation. — Barley thrives best on well- 
drained, rich, sandy loam. The soil is prepared as for oats 
and the times for seeding in different sections is about the 
same. 

Rye. — Rye is less used for bread making than wheat in 
America, but in some parts of the Old World the reverse 
is the case. The fiour there is cheaper, as it is much darker 
than wheat flour. Rye grows somewhat taller than wheat 
and thus produces more straw. The straw has a commercial 
value for packing purposes. 

Culture. — Rye will grow in any region adapted to wheat 
raising, and is grown even farther north than wheat. It does 



SMALL GRAINS 



159 



fairly well on poor soils, but the rich loams are better for the 
crop. When the crop is wanted for grain and for straw the 
methods of culture are practically the same as for wheat. 

Rye is often sown in summer to serve as a winter cover 
crop, and the green growth is plowed under in spring to serve 
as green manure in the improvement of soils. 




Fig. S5.^A good way to tie up small grains and grasses for exhibits. No. 2 had 
no fertilizer, No. 3 liad poorly kept manure, 4 fresh manure. 8 nitrate of soda. 

Flax. — ^This crop is grown in the northern States and in 
Canada chiefly for its seed. In the Old World, and somewhat 
in America, it is also grown for its fibre. The smooth, brown 
seeds furnish two products: linseed oil is used in painting 
because it dries so well; after the oil is extracted by pressure 
the remainder is ground into meal for use in feeding livestock. 
Linseed meal is rich in protein and is highly prized for feeding 
calves. It often forms a part of many stock feeds. 

Flax has been grown for many centuries ^or the fibre 



160 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

which it yields. The best quaUties are used in weaving the 
finest linen fabrics, and the dark, coarse fibres, called tow, 
are used for heavy cloth bagging and for twine. 

The leading States in the growth of flax seed are North 
Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota ; but Argentina 
produces more seed than any other country of the world. 
About four-fifths of the flax filjro of the world is grown in 
Russia. 

Growing the Crop. — The ])lant is an annual with pur- 
ple blossoms. It is not related to the cereal grains. It 
is sown in the spring, new land being preferred for its 
growth. Prairie sod land is often selected for growing the 
crop. It is best to "break" it in the fall and disk it the next 
spring. 

Three pecks of seed to the acre will produce a good stand 
if put in witli a grain drill. If a fibre crop is desired two or 
three times as much seed is planted so the plants will not 
branch so much and the fibre will not be so coarse. 

No culture is required and little attention is given the 
crop until harvest time. 

Harvesting Flax. — The grain crop is usually harvested 
by use of a grain binder, and the threshing and cleaning is 
done with a common threshing machine. Yields vary from 
eight to fifteen bushels per acre. 

The fibre crop is usually pulled by hand, as much of the 
best fibre is in the tap roots and lower part of the stems. 
The plants are tied in bundles and placed in shocks for a 
short time before delivery to the fibre works. Growers some- 
times strip off the heads before selling the stems. 

The crop groAvn for fibre is chiefly of a different variety 
from that grown for seed. It must be entirely free from weeds. 

To obtain flax fibre from the plants, the bast or inner 
"bark" must be separated from the inner pith and other 
parts of the stem. To do this the bundles are spread out for 
the retting process in the rain and weather for several weeks. 



SMALL GRAINS 161 

Next the breaking process breaks the straw into very short 
joints and removes some refuse material. The scutch- 
ing process then follows. This is beating with paddles or 
combing the fibre through revolving rollers and then through 
comb-like rods. When thoroughly cleaned and sorted it 
may be baled or may be spun into thread and woven into 
cloth. 

Flax for fibre is a paying crop to grow where hand labor 
is cheap; but it is because of the scarcity of such labor that 
flax is so little grown in America. 

Exercise. — Samples of Grains. — Let pupils bring from 
their homes or from their stores small samples of wheat, rye, 
oats and barley. There may be poor and good samples in 
the collection. These may be placed in bottles with suitable 
labels. Extra fine samples may be secured by the teacher 
for a school collection at local fairs or other expositions. 

Exercise. — Heads of Grains. — Make a collection for 
the school of all the forms of heads of the different kinds 
of grain that are grown near by. Preserve these in a bed of 
cotton in shallow pasteboard boxes with glass over them, 
secuied by binding strips (Fig. 83). A method of preparing 
samples for school fairs is shown in figure 85. 

REVIEW. 

1. Tell what j'ou can of the different types of wheat. 

2. Tell of the preparation of the soil and times for drilling in wheat. 

3. What is the legal weight of wheat? Why should seed wheat be 
heavier, if possible? 

4. Describe the appearance of good seed wheat. 

5. What is a self-binder? What is a header? What is a thresher? 

6. What are the chief uses for oats? 

7. Give directions for the seeding of oats. 

8. Name three types of barley. Which is most grown in America? 

9. Where may rye be grown? 

10. How does rye flour differ from wheat flour? 

11. What soils are suited to the growing of rye? 

12. Describe the use of rye as a green manure. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 424. Oats: Growing th? 
Crop; 443, Barley; Also Nos. 466, 518, 596, 640, 678, 680, 704, 732, 738; 
756, Rye; 793, Millet; 785, Flax; 786, Fall Grains. 



162 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

CHAPTER XV. 
POTATOES. 

IRISH POTATOES. 

The origin of the Irish potato has been traced to South 
America. From thence it was lirought to North America, 
and from here was taken to Europe by the early explorers. 
It was called Irish potato because it was so extensively grown 
in Ireland after its introduction into Europe. 

Importance. — It is now one of the most important crops of 
the world and is so universally gro\vn that no one section can 
claim to raise the majority of the world's crop. The United 
States in reality produces a small portion of the world's crop. 

Not only is the Irish potato used very extensively as 
human food; it is also fed to animals, used for the manufac- 
ture of starch, and also largely for the making of alcohol. 

Every State in the Union raises potatoes to some extent. 
Those States which produce the bulk of the crop grown in 
this country are, in the order of the amount grown. New 
York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Maine, Pennsylvania, Minne- 
sota, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, California, Colorado, New Jersey, 
Washington, Indiana, Nebraska. 

In 1913 the United States produced 331,526,000 bushels 
of potatoes, valued at $227,903,000. 

Greatest Production. — It will be noticed that the States 
named in the paragraph above are all northern States. The 
reason that the leading potato-producing States are all in the 
northern part of this country is that the Irish potato thrives 
better in the cooler soils and climates. 

Southern Potatoes. — While the South produces many 
thousands of bushels of potatoes annually, they are mostly 
the early crop, planted even as early as December in Florida, 
and of course harvested correspondingly early. These south- 
ern potatoes supply the early markets, both North and 
South. They will not keep long. Thus the South must 



POTATOES 163 

depend for its winter supply on its late potato crop, or on 
those grown in the North. The combined yields per acre of 
the two plantings in the South will hardly equal the one 
crop grown each season in northern States. 

Northern Potatoes. — The North raises but one crop, and 
this is planted in the spring after all severe frost is over. 
It then requires the whole season to mature and is harvested 
before the ground freezes in the fall. These potatoes, which 
have grown through the long season and are well matured, 
are of good keeping quality. They do not sprout so readily 
as the more rapidly matured potatoes of the South. It is 
for this reason that the southern States get most of their seed 
potatoes from the North. 

Types. — There are chiefly two types, viz., earl}^ pota- 
toes and late potatoes. These differ chiefl}^ in the 
time required to mature the crop from the time of planting. 
Early varieties are planted as soon as the ground can be 
worked in spring and are harvested as soon as possible for 
early market. Late varieties are planted late in May or 
early in June and are left in the ground to full maturity and 
are then sold or stored for winter. 

Soil. — The best soil for the potato is a rich, sandy loam, 
well drained and well supplied with vegetable matter. A 
soil heavier than this may be used if it is improved by green 
manuring and drainage. The lighter soils should be greatly 
enriched by the addition of green manures and fertilizers. 
Potatoes should be alternated or rotated with other crops 
on the field, not continuously growTi on the same land. 

Barnyard manure for potato fields should be well rotted 
or may be applied to the soil for the preceding crop, such as 
com. Commercial fertilizers are commonly applied at the 
time the potatoes are planted. 

Need of Moisture. — Irish potatoes require a large sup- 
ply of capillary moisture. For every pound of potatoes 
harvested the plant will have used nearly five hundred pounds 



164 PRODUCTI\^ FARMING 

of water taken from the soil during the growing season. The 
grower therefore finds it necessary to conserve the soil moisture 
by thorough tillage at the proper times, and by the mainten- 
ance of dust mulch or straw mulch. The soil should be deep, 
black, and full of vegetable matter to aid in holdmg moisture. 

Green Manure. — A green manure to plow under in the 
early spring may be started in the field of corn or other crop 
the preceding summer. Sow the seed in July or early August, 
using a mixture of rye, winter vetch and crimson clover. 
These plants will serve as a winter cover crop and when 
plowed under will quickly decay and form humus. 

Fertilizers for Potatoes. — In States east of the Missis- 
sippi Valley it is usually found advisable to fertilize the 
soil for potatoes M'hen gro^\Ti for market. Barn^'ard manure is 
usually applied to the field a j^ear before the potatoes are to be 
groN\Ti there. Green manure or grass sod may be turned under 
the spring that the potatoes are to be planted; but it should 
be worked well by disking after the plowing. Fresh manure 
from horse stables applied the same year that the crop is 
planted tends to cause the scab disease to develop badly. 

Commercial fertilizers for potatoes are usually applied at 
planting time and are drilled in the rows after part of the 
soil has been dra\\Ti over the seed potatoes. The fertilizer 
should not actually touch them. A fertilizer that is rich in 
potash is desirable for potatoes. A complete mixture may 
contain these percentages: 2 to 3 of nitrogen, 4 to 6 of phos- 
phate, 8 to 10 of potash. See Appendix Table VII for in- 
gredients to use for these mixtures. 

Plowing should be done in the spring not long before the 
potatoes are to be planted. It must be deep and thorough 
as the potatoes require a loose bed for growth. The newly 
plowed ground must not be packed with a roller, but should 
be smoothed with a common harrow. 

Cutting Seed. — The seed pieces are cut in many different 
ways, with one or two eyes to a piece being the most common. 



POTATOES 



165 



Experiments have shown that cutting the tubers into quarters 
will give larger crop yields (Fig. 86). 

Saving Seed Potatoes. — When seed potatoes are very 
expensive, as is often the case at planting time, there is a 
strong temptation to cut the pieces very small with only one 
or two "eyes " or buds on each piece. 

As the buds are abundant and strong at one end, and 
scarce and weak at the other, it is often best to cut off the 

eye end for planting and 
use the remainder for 
cooking (Fig. 86a). 
Much is saved and a 
better stand is secured 
in the field. Large tu- 
bers may be cut into 
pieces, of about two 
ounces each. 
Varieties. — Irish pota- 
toes vary in color of 
skin and flesh, texture of 
flesh, depth of eyes, 
smoothness of skin, 
shape, size, earliness, 
keeping qualities, cooking qualities, and in other ways. 
As to time required to mature the crop, growers com- 
monly classify the varieties as early, medium, and late. 
The early varieties are most desirable for summer market 
and are not so good for storing as the others. They are sold 
as soon as harvested so as to obtain the best prices. Good 
early varieties are Early Rose, Peachblow, Early Ohio, Red 
Triumph, White Triumph, and Irish Cobbler. 

Later varieties yield more than the early ones and are 
usually left in the ground until thoroughly matured. They 
will, therefore, keep better in storage. 

Green Mountain and American Giant are heavy yielding 
varieties of the medium season. 




Fig. 86. — Seed potatoes may be sprouted 
in bright sunlight before planting. Vigorous 
green sprouts will thus be developed. These 
will greatly strengthen the growth after 
planting. 



166 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Carman No. 3 and Rural New Yorker are late varieties 
that resist disease fairly well. Other late varieties that are 
popular because of good quality and heavy yielding are 
Burbank and Sir Walter Raleigh. 





Fig. 86a. — The eye end of the potato is best for seed. The stem end may be saved 
for food if desired. Never cut across the eye end as shown at the left. 

Seed Selection. — For the best crop it is well to select seed 
potatoes of the form and character desired in the crop. The 
following score card will serve as a guide in selecting potatoes 
either for seed or for exhibition: 

Size 20 

Too large, cut 2 

Too small, cut 12 

Not even, cut 6 
Appearance 60 

Not bright, cut 10 

Dirty, cut 10 

Scabby or wormy, cut 40 

Shape 10 

Quality 10 

Unsound, cut 5 

Brittle or spongy, cut 5 

Total 100 

It is not wise to plant small potatoes because they are 
cheap. It is well, if possible, to select seed from heavy- 
yielding plants, as this is certain to help increase the yield. 

Seed potatoes from northern States are shipped to growers 
in the middle and southern latitudes for the sake of increasing 
the yield and hastening the growth of the crop. This prac- 
tice of "importing" seed from farther north is not always 
necessary for the middle latitudes, but should be continued 
in the South where the tubers do not ripen well. 



POTATOES 167 

Planting. — Early potatoes may be planted as early in 
the spring as the soil can be prepared. Late potatoes should 
be planted in May or early June. The crop suffers when dry 
weather comes on. The time of planting should be planned 
to bring the time when the tubers are forming at a period 
when the rainfall is usually good. 

There are several good methods of planting potatoes; 
these vary according to climate and soil. In wet or heavy 
soil they may be planted only three inches deep; in the 
lighter soils or when the weather is hot and dry the tubers 
may be planted as deep as six inches. 

In large fields, potatoes are usually planted hy the use of 
machine planters. There are several types of these machines. 
The best ones open the furrow in the plowed field, drop the 
seed potatoes at regular intervals, cover them with soil, and 
distribute commercial fertilizer as desired. 

Two crops a year are usually grown in States south of the 
Ohio River. It is best to not grow the second crop on the 
same field where the first was dug. Rotation is better. 

The first crop is planted in February or March or as 
early as the ground can be prepared. This crop usually 
suffers very little from dry weather and is more productive 
than the late crop. The harvest is in May, June or July, 
depending upon the latitude. 

The second, or late crop is planted about June or July, 
and if protected from blight disease may continue growing 
until winter, say about the first of December. Frost does 
not injure the crop. For the second crop, seed potatoes 
chiefly from the northern States are held over in cold storage 
for the midsummer planting. 

Mulching the second crop with straw or similar material 
is practiced in many places. This is to save the soil moist- 
ure and to give the growing tubers a cooler condition. The 
crop is planted in the usual way, or perhaps a little shallower. 
Then the straw is spread over the field a few inches deep. If the 
12 



168 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ground is mellow no tillage is given, at least until the vines are 
half grown. In some cases no tillage whatever is required. 

Early varieties should be planted for the second crop of 
potatoes. Lookout Mountain, Green IVIountain, Irish Cob- 
bler, Early White Triumph, and Red Triumph are popular 
for both plantings in the South. 

Distances for Planting Potatoes vary somewhat in dif- 



Fia. 87. — Digging potatoes by use of a machine and four horses. Men, -women and 
children sometimes pick up the potatoes after the machine. 

ferent potato districts. Very commonly the rows are three 
feet apart and the seed-pieces are twelve or eighteen inches 
apart in the rows. Ten bushels of seed potatoes are required 
to plant an acre, at distances one and a half by three feet, if 
the pieces weigh one ounce each. 

Cultivation. — After the planting is done the field should 
be harrowed. After this frequent shallow cultivations are 
made until the vines are so large that they shade the soil 
well. A light ridging of the soil towards the rows at the time 
of the last cultivation is usually practiced, the purpose being 
to prevent the new tubers from growing out of the ground. 

Insect Pests and Diseases. — Farmers have lost many 
acres of Irish potatoes through the ravages of insects or plant 
diseases which they did not know how to combat. But 
through the experiments made at the State experiment 
stations, farmers are now able to control both insects and 
plant diseases. 



POTATOES 169 

Potato beetles and flea beetles are kept in check by- 
spraying or dusting the plants with poisons. For example, 
one part of Paris green is mixed with 20 to 40 parts of pow- 
dered lime, air-slaked. It is put into a burlap sack and shaken 
over the potato plants in early morning while the dew is on 
them. This work should be started in early spring when the 
adult potato beetbs are coming out of their winter hiding 
places to lay their eggs on the potato leaves. Killing old ones 
early will prevent much damage by young ones a little later. 
See the insect chapter for the life history of potato beetles. 

Spraying potato fields is a little more expensive than 
the dusting method, but is usually the more desirable for 
several reasons: (1) the poisoning can be done more thor- 
oughly; (2) the poison when applied wet will stay on the 
plants longer and may not need repeating so often; (3) the 
spraying work may proceed in fields all day, while dusting 
can be done only while the dew remains in early morning; 
(4) when spraying for beetles the farmer may also add Bor- 
deaux mixture, and thus prevent the blight disease, at the 
same time. 

The spray solution for beetles alone should contain 
arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the latter is used a little 
lime is added to make the spray cling well and to prevent 
damage to the leaves by free arsenic. Use one-fourth to one 
pound of Paris green and one pound lime to 40 or 50 gallons 
of water (or Bordeaux) . Keep well stirred while spraying. 

For spraying with arsenate of lead, mLx two to three 
pounds of the arsenate in paste form with 40 or 50 gallons 
of water or Bordeaux (see Appendix, Table III). 

Potato blight is often as serious an enemy of the main 
crop as the beetles. In one sense it is more serious because of 
the fact that when it makes a start in a field nothing can stop 
it and the whole crop is likely to become affected. Preven- 
tion spraying is the only practical remedy. Bordeaux mix- 
ture is used for this. Apply it as early as you would begin to 



170 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

fight the beetles. Plan to fight them both at each spraying, 
by combining the poison with the Bordeaux. See preceding 
paragraphs. 

Two kinds of potato blight affect the crop, namely 
early blight and late blight. They both turn the vines brown 
and gradually kill them. They are both effectually prevented 
by using Bordeaux in advance of the disease, say every 
time that poison is needed to kill potato beetles or flea beetles. 

The early blight is much less destructive in most States 
than the late blight. Growers do not always find it practical 
to spray to prevent early blight. But as Bordeaux mixture 
is not expensive and if the work of spraying for beetles 
is done earlj', it is advisable to use both the poison and the 
Bordeaux together. 

Late blight is usually very common. Most unsprayed 
crops are affected by it. The vines die too soon; the yield is 
much reduced; the tubers ripen prematurely; and the pota- 
toes will not keep in storage so well. The so-called "centre 
rot" and "end rot" of the tubers at harvest time and later, 
are results of the attacks of late blight. It was this potato 
blight which caused the terrible famine in Ireland in 1846. 

There is no excuse for not preventing this disease by 
spraying with Bordeaux mixture while spraying with poison 
to fight the beetles. (See Appendix, Table III, for making 
Bordeaux mixture.) 

Potato Scab Disease. — This is a serious trouble in nearly 
all potato-growing districts. If all seed potatoes are given 
a preventive treatment before planting, the soil will be kept 
free from the disease and the crop will not be affected. 

Before cutting the tubers, soak them for two hours in a 
solution of one pint full strength formalin in thirty-twc 
gallons of water. Applications of fresh lime or fresh manure 
both tend to increase the scab disease in the soil. These 
should both be avoided when potatoes are planted. 

Harvesting. — Large potato fields are usually dug by use 



POTATOES 



17: 



of machines drawn by horses (Fig. 87). One of the smaller 
forms is shown in Fig. 87a. Larger machines elevate the 
tubers, shake off the dirt, and drop them on the ground. 
They are drawn by three or four horses. Small garden 
patches are dug by hand tools. 

Weights and Yields. — The legal weight of a bushel of 
potatoes is sixty pounds, except in Pennsj'lvania and Vir- 
ginia, where the weight is fifty-six pounds. The yields are 
often two hundred and fifty bushels or more per acre, but 




Fio. 87a. — An inescpensive potato digger to be drawn by one or two horses. 
(Plant Industry.) 

the average is about one hundred bushels per acre. The 
value of the crop in the United States each year is about 
$100,000,000. 

SWEET POTATOES. 

The sweet potato is grown to a limited extent in nearly all 
the northern States, but the best qualities and largest 
quantities are produced in the southern States. The plant 
is of tropical origin. 

Soil. — Sweet potatoes thrive best on a rather sandy 
loam which does not contain too much of organic matter. 
Soils that are too poor for the production of most other 
farm crops may suit sweet potatoes very well. 

Starting the Plants. — New plants are started in early 



172 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Bprinp; from seed potatoes. The whole potatoes are planted 
in fine, rich sandy loam in hot-beds (Figs. 88, 89). These 
may be heated either by manure or by fuel. The tempera- 
ture at first is kept at 80° or 85° F. Before the plants are 
pulled from this bed to be transplanted to the field the 
temperature is gradually lowered to 60° F. The growth in 
the hot-lied requires about six weeks. 





■^^^^mb^jj^s 


tei:::*^?^:-.-' 




i 


1 "■ 


tf «Llfl|^"i. 


X^^ 







Fio. 88. — Sweet potatoes in a hot-hed readv to be covered. They will produce 
youug plants for lieki plaining. (Experiineiit Station, N. J.) 

In the Field. — The soil is prepared as for corn — the sur- 
face being left smooth and even. In some places the farmers 
ridge the field and set the plants on the ridges. Others 
practice the level culture. Planting in the field should be 
done when the soil is moist enough to produce a ru}>id growth 
after setting the young plants. Where level culture is prac- 
ticed the plants are often set two or two and one-half feet 
each way. Where ridges are made the rows are often three 
and one-half feet apart and the plants fourteen to eighteen 



POTATOES 173 

inches apart in the rows, requiring over 8000 plants per 
acre. The plants are set in the ground by hand, by tongs, 
or by large machine planters. 

Cultivation is simple and does not last long as the vines 
soon cover the ground. Large weeds are usually pulled by 
hand or cut with hoes. 

Harvesting is done before cold weather. The vines must 
be cut loose from the hills before they are frozen to prevent 
injury of the crop. There are special plows, similar to Fig. 
87, for digging sweet potatoes. Small areas are often dug 
with spading forks. 




Fig. 89. — A ninRle sweet potato from the hot-bed, showing many young sprouts. 
Note the dilTerence ia tlie size of young plants. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



Storage is necessary if the crop is not sold immediately. 
Special pits and heated buildings are constructed for storing 
sweet potatoes. The roots must be handled with the greatest 
care to avoid bruising them if they are to be stored. When 
first put into storage they go through a "sweating" or curing 
process; this requires a temperature of 85° or 90° F. After 
that the temperature is kept at 55° to 65° F. A great deal of 
ventilation is required to keep the place perfectly dry. 



174 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Exercise. — Yield and Value. — Find out the usual yield 
per acre of Irish potatoes in your vicinity, and then estimate 
how many acres of land it would take to raise the number of 
bushels produced in the United States in 1913. Would this 
acreage entirely cover any of the smaller States? What was 
the value of the yield per bushel that year? What per acre? 

REVIEW. 

1. Where was the Irish potato first found? 

2. How did it come to he called the Irish potato? 

3. Learn if you can who is said to have carried it from North 
America to Europe. 

4. What States grow the heaviest crops of potatoes? 

5. Compare potato growing in different sections of the United 
States, as to planting dates, keeping qualities, and in other vrays. 

6. What kinds of soil are best suited to potato growing? 

7. Why do potatoes need so much moisture? 

8. Name some of the best varieties for seed. 

9. Find out what kinds are grown in your vicinity. Learn which 
yield the heaviest crops. 

10. Tell of the times for planting early and late potatoes. 
IL Give depth for planting; also distances. 

12. Give directions for treating seed potatoes to keep the scab 
disease out of the soil. 

13. What is the legal weight per Imshel of potatoes in your State? 

14. What fertilizers do farmers use for potatoes in your locality? 

15. What green manures help the potato crop? 

16. Give directions for plowing potatoes. 

17. Give directions for selecting and preparing seed potatoes for 
planting. 

18. Where and how are two crops grown in one year? 

19. How should a field of potatoes be cared for after planting? 

20. What insects att.ick the potato fields? 

21. Have any plant diseases ever destroyed potatoes in your 
neighborhood ? 

22. How maj' insects and diseases be controlled at the same time? 

23. In what climates and on what soils are sweet potatoes usually 
grown? 

24. Describe the starting of sweet potato plants for a large field. 

25. Tell how sweet potatoes are stored for winter. 

References. — I^. S. Farmers' Bulletins : 324 Sweet Potatoes; 365, 
Farm Management in Northern Potato-growing .'Sections; 533, Seed 
Potatoes; 544, Potato Tuber Diseases; 548, Storing and Marketing 
Sweet Potatoes; 714, Sweet Potato Diseases; 753, Commercial Hand- 
ling, Grading and Marketing of Potatoes. 



TOBACCO FOR MARKET 175 

CHAPTER XVI. 
TOBACCO FOR MARKET. 

Tobacco crops were groAjm in Virginia by white men, 
as early as 1612. Before that time Indians had been growing 
it for their own use. The United States now produces over 
a billion pounds annually, which is fully a third of the world's 
production. When sold as low as ten cents a pound the 
money value is enormous. I 

The crop is grown commercially in all the humid parts 
of the country, particularly in the Eastern States. The lead- 
ing States in order of production are Kentucky, North Caro- 
lina, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, 
South Carolina, and Connecticut. 

Tobacco is of several types or classes which are much 
influenced by local soil and climatic conditions. Each sec- 
tion is usually devoted to the growing of one type, as cigar 
wrapper or binder, cigar filler, pipe tobacco, and plug tobacco. 
Manufacturing types include all but cigar types and export 
types. 

The plant is an annual which grows very large and rank, 
with an erect, simple stem. The large, simple leaves from 
this stem are of commercial value. They have a biting or 
pungent flavor and aroma and contain from one-half to two 
and one-half per cent of nicotine in mild tobacco, and as 
much as eight per cent in the lower grades. The seeds of the 
plant are abundant and very small. Only a few plants are 
allowed to form seed with which to start the next crop. 

The soil should be deep, rich, and well drained, but sandy 
enough to be easily warmed and ventilated. The plant 
is very exhaustive to the nitrogen, phosphate, and potash, 
and these plant foods should be supplied by the use of ma- 
nures and fertilizers. The plowing should be nearly a foot 
deep, and the surface is then disked and harrowed until well 
pulverized. 



176 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Seeding is in cold-frames in the South and in hot beds 
in the North. The soil for the bed is often made sterile by 
burning some brush over it just before the time of planting. 
Seeds are sown after the soil is in fine condition. For a bed 
10 by 50 feet use about one ounce of seed, or one tablespoon- 
ful. This may furnish plants enough for about five acres, 
when transplanted. Cover the seeds lightly by tramping, 
rolling or raking. Cloth may be used to cover the beds, but 
glass is used in the cold regions. About six weeks should be 
allowed for the growth in beds. 

Transplanting is not done until all danger of frost is 
over and the field soil is warm and 
mellow. The rows are placed three 
to four feet apart and the plants a 
little closer in the rows; or they may 
be in rows both ways for ease of 
tillage. The transplanting may be 
either by hand or by machine as with 
early cabbage plants (Fig. 89a). 

Care. — The crop is given very clean 
Fig. S9a^— Press the soil culture during its growth. The large 

well around the newly set o o o 

plant. (Dunham Co.) hom-worms, if abundant, must bc killed 

by spraying with a poison, arsenate of lead or Paris green; 
but if not abundant they are picked off by hand. When the 
plants are large the suckers are removed, and the tops are 
cut to prevent flowering and seeding. Priming is the re- 
moval of the lower leaves which are apt to be injured by the 
soil. 

Harvesting begins when the leaves are ripe enough to 
cure. The skilful grower determines this by the color and the 
"feel" when folded in the fingers. Usually the whole plant 
is cut near the ground and the stem split to slip on a lath, 
after wilting. The laths, each with several plants hanging 
from it, are hauled to the barns or sheds and hung in open 
tiers for curing. In some sections and with some types of 




TOBACCO FOR MARKET 177 

tobacco, the leaves are gathered separately as they ripen. 

Curing is of three main types: (1) air curing in well- 
ventilated buildings; (2) open fire curing in closer barns with 
fires on the floor after the plants have yellowed a few days; 
(3) flue curing in tight barns with furnaces and flues. The 
last method requires most skill but least time, and smaller 
buildings may be used. 

Stripping and sorting is done after curing at a time when 
the leaves are moist enough to be handled without loss. 
Grades depend upon length of leaf, injury, texture, color, 
and curing. It can then be tied into hanks and bulked. It 
is now ready to be stored for future marketing. 

Varieties for dark tobacco are Yellow Mammoth, Pryors, 
and Orinocos, with their many derivatives. These are usually 
fire-cured. White Burley is the leading air-cured variety. 

REVIEW. 

1. Compare tobacco as a money crop with some other crops of the 
United States. 

2. Mention the different classes of tobacco, 

3. Describe the starting of the crop. 

4. Tell what you can of the field care. 

5. What are the two methods of harvesting? 

6. Outline three methods of curing. 

References to Bullefins on Tobacco. — United States Farmers' 
Bulletins: 72, 120, 416, 523, 571, and 595. Kentuckv Station bulletins 
129 and 139. 



178 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY. 

Forest products in America are not as generally con- 
sidered a part of the permanent resources of the farm as 
they should be. The chief products are lumber, posts, poles, 
railroad ties, and fuel. Thus far lumber, ties, and poles have 
been obtained mainly from native forests. These are rapidly 
becoming exhausted. In the prairie States firewood and 
posts are obtained from plantings made by man (Fig. 896), 
but elsewhere chiefly from the native woods. 




Fig. 896. — Tree seeds of many kinds may be planted in fields and gardens. 
The seedlings are cultivated for one year and then transplanted to wood-lots and 
shelter-belts (U.S.D. A.) 

Forestry should become a systematic part of many farms 
in all the prairie States as well as in the States where tim- 
ber was originally found. 

Tree planting is naturally considered under two heads: 
(1) Prairie planting may be for ornament, windbreaks, 
shelter-belts, and wood-lots or groves for wood, posts and 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTKY 179 

lumber. (2) Forest planting, which is primarily for the 
revenue to be derived from the sale of wood and lumber. 

It is a special problem in the management of each indi- 
vidual farm to decide just what planting should be done. 
The Forestry Service of the United States Department of 
Agriculture offers to give practical assistance to tree planters 
in deciding these questions. Circular 22 of that service 
should be read in this connection. Careful study should be 
given to the planting of trees under some good system, as 
a forest is the most permanent thing that can be planted 
on a farm. 

Need of Forest Planting. — Forests are necessary to the 
highest material development of any country. The climatic 
influences are very beneficial. It is desirable in behalf of 
the public welfare to plant trees in great number. This is 
true both on the treeless plains and also on the sites of de- 
stroyed forests. To be of most public benefit the planting 
should be well distributed over the region. All will share 
the benefits and all should join in planting the trees. 

Forest Influences. — Growing trees conserve moisture, 
modify climatic extremes, and purify the air. Careful 
observation shows that large trees growing in a grove affect 
climatic and soil conditions in several ways: 

1. During the day the ground under the trees is protected 
from the sun's rays and is therefore cooler than soil not 
protected. The air circulating over this cool soil tends to 
cool the air in the immediate vicinity on sunny days. 

2. At night the trees retard the loss of heat from the 
ground under them. This tends to equalize the temperature 
of not only the soil and air under the tree but that in the 
near vicinity. The soil and air are kept cooler by day and 
warmer by night. This equalizing of temperature is notice- 
able during short periods of very hot or very cold weather. 
Gardens growing near trees are sometimes uninjured by 
fall frosts which kill tender plants in other gardens. 



180 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

3. The drying out of soil is also prevented by the mulch 
of leaves and twigs which fall to the ground under the trees. 
Trees and leaves check the flow of water over the land, thus 
preventing the washing away of good soil. The soil is not so 
badly beaten do^\Ti by heavy rains. The water soaks into 
the soil better and the flow-off is very gradual. 

4. By breaking the force of the wind trees will aid in 
retaining moisture in the surface soil near the trees. The 
evaporation decreases as the wind is checked. Water is also 
held better in the soil shaded by the trees. A large amount 
of water which the trees give off from their leaves is drawn 
from the subsoil, without drawing on the water of the surface 
soil. This moisture from the leaves increases the amount 
in the surrounding air. Trees which have the roots near 
the surface, as the elm and red maple, take up so much water 
near the surface as to make it unwise to try to grow crops 
near them, 

5. The destructive force of severe winds is often prevented 
by trees. Tornadoes may be prevented or made of little 
effect by large groups of trees. Certain crops may be grown 
when protected by shelter-belts of trees that could not other- 
wise be grown on the prairie. These shelters from high winds 
prevent the blowing of soils. They lessen the severity of 
cold winter winds both for stock and for people. 

How Trees Influence Water Supply. — The proper dis- 
tribution of water upon the land is the most important factor 
in the growing of crops. In the natural course of the seasons 
we have both floods and droughts. The proper holding of 
the water from flood-time to drought is best accomplished 
by the growth of trees and the protection of natural forestSc 

Rain falling upon forested areas flows away slowly. 
Springs and streams are kept constantly supplied from the 
water of such areas. 

Instead of the waters of the rainy season producing heavy 
floods and causing much destruction along the courses of 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 181 

streams the water is greatly retarded and no flood is expe- 
rienced. The water from heavy rains is held back by the 
carpet of leaves on the soil beneath the trees, by the roots 
in the soil, and by the decaying matter from former years. 

In sections where the forests have been cut off for the 
use of man, the streams frequently go dry during the summer. 
Water power of mills and factories is thus cut off; the water 
supply for homes, villages, and cities is reduced to the danger 
point. Navigation of the larger streams is checked or stopped 
for a while. Many wells are without drinking water because 
the level of the soil water is deeper than the wells. 

The growth of forests would correct the difficulty of water 
supply in many parts of the country. The United States 
Government has reserved large areas of mountainous and 
hilly land for the purpose of preserving the natural forests and 
maintaining the flow of the larger streams in those sections. 

Forest Planting on the Farm. — The wood-lot or forest 
plantation on a farm where the land is all tillable should 
usually be in the form of a wide shelter-belt. If there be 
rough land on the farm not suitable for the more common 
crops, groves may be maintained on this to good advantage. 
On land too stony or too steep for use of other crops some 
kinds of trees will grow well. The location of such groves is 
to be determined by natural conditions. 

The location of the wide shelter-belts will be influenced 
by several things. These trees may affect the air drainage 
of near-by orchards; the wind currents will be controlled; 
and the humidity of the air about the home will be influenced. 

Such trees should be far enough from the buildings and 
roadways to not cause the drifting of snows which would be 
in the way. The shelter-belt should be about six rods wide, 
made up of a number of lines or rows of trees with the smaller 
kinds on the side toward the prevailing wind. This will 
deflect the wind currents upward and prevent their bad 
effects. 



182 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

"Make the belts of trees several rods wide, because single 
rows of trees or narrow belts are less profitable when we 
consider the relative amount of land used. 

Shelter-belts should be planted on the side of the pre- 
vailing winds. In some places this is on the southwest side 
of the group of farm buildings to protect the premises from 
hottest ^vinds of summer. The coldest winds of winter will 
be checked by planting trees along the north and northwest. 
Probably the planting of belts along the north and west 
sides would be best in most cases. 

In prairie countries and in dry climates the shelter-belts 
should be used to protect fields of crops from both the blast- 
ing winds of summer and the storms of winter. 

Kinds of Trees. — There has always been a tendency in 
the prairie States to plant trees that would grow quickly. 
These are not the best kinds because, as a rule, they are 
short-lived and the plantation is soon gone. The more 
permanent kinds of trees should be chosen. 

The revenue to be derived from the sale of fuel, posts, 
poles, and lumber should be considered in the choice of 
varieties. Chestnut groves have often paid a good return 
for their cost in the nuts produced for market. Walnut is 
a slower growing wood than Cottonwood, but when mature 
will return a much larger income for each year of its growth. 
Trees with deep root systems should be chosen if the trees 
are to grow near other crops, as the surface soil will not be 
dried out so fast. Such trees would be walnut, hickory, 
hardy catalpa, chestnut, locust, and others. All of these 
have valuable woods. 

Propagation of Forest Trees. — Nearly all kinds of forest 
trees are propagated by seeds. Willows and a few others 
are easily increased by cuttings. 

The seeds for planting should be mature and as freshly 
gathered as possible. It is quite difficult to germinate some 
tree seeds that are very old and dry. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 



183 



The nuts of black walnut, hickory, chestnut, and others, 
and the pits of the plum, peach, and cherry should be either 
spread between layers of moist sand or planted in the fall 
where they are to grow. They should not be allowed to dry 
out after ripening. The larger nuts may be planted while 
doing shallow plowing, by dropping them in a furrow and 
covering them with the next furrow slice. 

The deep root system formed by most of the true nut- 
bearing trees makes them difficult to transplant, even when 
young. 




Fig. 90. — Lattice support ed on polos. 8nrh a structure gives alternate light and 

shade in growing forest seedlings, tobacco, ginseng, and a few other plants. 

(Plant Industry.) 

Seeds that ripen in spring and early summer should be 
planted within a few weeks, as they live but a short time. 
The American elm, soft maple, and cottonwood are examples 
of this group, but the red elm is an exception, as the seeds 
will not sprout until the next spring. 

Seeds of trees that ripen in the fall, except the evergreens, 
may be planted either the same fall or the following spring. 
If planted in the fall they should be covered with a leaf 
mulch and also protected from squirrels and other animals. 

The cone-bearing trees, including the pine, spruce, tama- 
rack, and white cedar are started from seed sown in the 
13 



184 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



spring under partial shade. This partial shade may be made 
by a lattice work supported on poles (Fig. 90) . Rather sandy 
soil is best for the starting of these seeds, which are planted 
very shallow. They may be sown either broadcast or thickly 
in drills with the rows close together. 

Before young trees of any of the kinds become too crowded 
in the seed beds they should be transplanted. If they are 
too small to be used in the forest plantation they are put in 
rows far enough apart to cultivate in a 
forest nursery. It is a very common 
practice to keep young trees in the forest 
nursery for one or more years. 

Exercise. — Starling Tree Seeds. — Col- 
lect from the woods, or buy from a seed 
store, seeds of ash, birch, hard maple, and 
box elder. Plant them in a A\indow box 
in loose black soil, covering them to a 
depth of about one inch. Moisten the 
soil from time to time and observe the 
time required for germination of each 
kind. Note the methods they have of 
coming out of the soil. How many seed- 
leaves have they? (Fig. 91.) 
Distances Apart for Trees. — The Forest Service recom- 
mends that in a wood-lot or forest plantation most trees be 
set four feet apart each way. It is the aim to get the soil 
shaded by the trees as soon as possible, and to use all the 
space for tree growth after the first year. The first year 
a low-growing crop requiring cultivation may be planted in 
the rows with the young trees. Potatoes may be used for 
this purpose one season only. 

Another plan followed in some forest planting is to plant 
the trees two feet apart in the rows with eight feet between 
the rows. In this plan the space between rows may be used 
for other cultivated crops for several years. The trees can 




Fig. 91. — Young 
maple-tree seedling 
showing the first seed- 
leaves still cUnging. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 



185 



be cultivated for a much longer period than where they are 
only four feet apart. 

Mixed plantings are made by setting alternate rows of 
two or three varieties. There are a number of advantages 
derived from the mixing of the trees instead of planting only 
one kind (Fig. 92) : 




Fig. 92.— a shelter-belt of mixed hard woods. This form of fence will protect the 
forest from grazing stock. (Plant Industry.) 



1. There is less danger of total loss from drought, insects, 
and diseases. 

2. Rapid-growing trees may temporarily fill the area 
while the slower and more permanent ones are becoming 
large enough. 



18(5 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



3. Tender kinds, such as Scotch pine, do much better 
when partially protected by more hardy trees. 

4. Mixed plantings are more beautiful and interesting. 

5. Birds are attracted by the greater variety of food and 
shelter. 

6. The ground is usually better shaded by mixed planting. 
Tall trees with thin foliage, such as maple and birch, may be 



Fia. 94. 



Fio. QAa. 




FiQ. 93. — A pine tree growinii in an open placo, holdinK the leaves out to the 
light. 

FiQ. 94. — Pines and other trees grown in a dense forest, wliieh is now mostly 
cleared away. 

Fia. 94o. — Sugar maple tree yields sap in early spring. 

alternated with those which have dense foliage and can 
endure shade well, such as spruce and beech. 

Exercise. — Distance Apart and Shape. — In a wood-lot 
or other place where trees are growing close together, notice 
the distance^ from the ground to the first side limbs that are 
beneath the shade of other trees (Fig. 94). Compare these 
with trees of the same kind growing in open places. In a 
dense forest the side limbs are shaded from the light and 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 



187 



may soon die and drop off. Those in the open grow large 
because of the light all about them (Fig. 93). Which would 
produce clear lumber and which would be knotty? 

Exercise. — Rings of Wood. — Have some one bring to 
school a circular section cut across the end of a tree trunk, 




Fio. 9S. — Method of mounting wood saniples for study. (Agricultural Education.) 

showing the riners of wood. Each ring represents one season 
of growth. Count them. Are some wider than others? 
Are the wide rings indications of favorable or of unfavorable 
seasons of growth ? Notice the dark heart-wood in the center 
and the light colored sap-wood near the bark. Figure 95 
represents a good method of saving samples for future study. 



188 PRODUCTIVE FARAHNG 

Planting the Trees. — When wood-lots and wide shelter- 
belts are to be planted, the ground should be prepared by 
plowing and harrowing, unless it is too rough or stony. 
The trees from the seed bed or forest nursery are transplanted 
to their new location when of suitable size. The size depends 
upon the kind and size of those with which they are to be 
planted. Evergreens may be transplanted whenever new 
shoots are not growing, but late spring is probably the best 
time. Early spring is best for other trees and shrubs. 

When very small seedlings are to be planted in great 
numbers, a small but deep opening is made by thrusting a 
narrow spade into the plowed soil and moving the handle 
back and forth. The spade is removed and the little tree 
roots pushed to the bottom of the hole. The soil is then 
pressed in about the roots and at the same time the little tree 
is lifted to make it of proper depth. This plan of planting 
is very rapid. 

Larger Trees must be planted with more care. The holes 
should be larger and deeper than the trees seem to require. 
Prune all broken or bruised roots. Prune off some of the 
top, to somewhat balance the reduced root surface. Place 
loose rich soil in ths bottom to come in contact with the roots. 
The tree should be a little deeper in the ground than it was 
before. Fill the hole with the best soil and tramp it in well, 
but leave a layer of rather loose soil on the surface. 

Exercise. — Arhor Day Planting. — Plan for the planting 
of trees and shrubs on the school grounds on Arbor Day 
and other spring days. Have the places for planting each 
shrub or tree determined in advance. Study the principles 
laid down in the reference bulletins and in this book, to make 
the school grounds very beautiful. 

Ornamental Planting. — One of the best plans for the 
planting of trees on Eastern farms, and indeed everyAvhere, 
is to place them where they will lend a degree of beauty to 
the farm home. The appearance of the surroundings may 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 189 

be wonderfully improved by planting in suitable places a 
number of well chosen kinds of trees. 

Care and Management. — The farm wood-lot should be 
managed in such a way as to produce regular harvests of 
fuel, lumber, posts, and railroad ties, through a long series 
of years. Advancing prices of these materials make the 
wood-lot a very profitable part of the farm. 

In the proper management of the wood-lot there are a 
number of principles to be applied. Some of the most 
important are given here: 

1. In cutting the crop take those trees that are ripe, 
not the young or middle-aged ones. 

2. Save the small seedlings and saplings to renew the 
forest when the old trees are harvested. 

3. Take out the badly shaped and diseased trees and 
those of Inferior kind. Such are called weeds, and may be 
used for fuel. 

4. Leave good specimens that are old enough to bear 
good crops of seed. These will naturally re-seed the wood-lot 
and keep it supphed with young growth. 

5. Usually the wood-lot should not be used as a pasture. 
This destroys the young trees and the future life of the 
forest. The leaf mulch is never good in a pasture. 

6. The stand of trees left at any time must be neither 
too thin nor too thick, as this affects the shape of the trees 
(Figs. 93, 94). 

7. Some kinds that send up shoots from the stumps, 
called coppice growth, must be thinned to avoid crowding. 
Catalpa, chestnut,, locust, mulberry, osage orange, and others 
send up rapidly-growing coppice from the stumps. 

8. Trees damaged by storms should be harvested before 
insects and diseases attack them, as these often spread to 
healthier trees. 

9. Always pile up and burn the waste brush after each 
harvest. This will check the spread of insects, and reduce 
the danger from fire. 



190 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

10. Post up legal notices furnished by the State authorities 
to warn all campers and hunters against forest fires. 

11. Replant belts destroyed by fire or storm. 

Exercise. — Kinds of Trees. — Collect twigs of the ever- 
greens and other trees and have pupils name them for the 
class. They may learn the names at home or elsewhere if 
none in the class know them. Students should learn what 
ones are most valued for posts, for lumber, and other uses. 

REVIEW. 

1 . What are some of the common uses to be derived from the farm 
wood-lot ? 

2. In what way is a forest of pubUc benefit ? 

3. Tell of the influence of a grove of trees on the temperature of 
the soil. 

4. How does a forest control soil moisture ? 

5. Why should homes be protected by trees ? 

6. How are streams affected when forests are cut off ? 

7. How does a forest help to prevent a flood ? 

8. On what sides of the farmstead should shelter-belts be grown ? 

9. What width is suggested for these shelter-belts? Why is one 
row of trees not the best ? 

10. What things must be considered in deciding what trees to plant ? 

1 1 . What tree seeds must be planted or put in moist sand in the fall? 

12. Which are planted in early summer? 

13. Tell when and how to start seeds of the cone-bearing trees. 

14. Give distances apart for planting trees in the wood-lot, and 
compare the two plans given. 

15. Mention several advantages of mixed planting. 

16. How does the distance apart affect the shape of trees? 

17. Tell how to plant small seedlings in the wood-lot. 

18. Describe the planting of a larger tree. 

19. How are wood-lots naturally re-seeded ? 

20. What are forest weeds ? What should be done with them ? 

21. Why not use the wood-lot as a pasture ? 

22. Mention one way of preventing forest insects and diseases. 

23. Mention two ways to help prevent forest fires. 

References. — I'uited States Farmers' Bulletins: 516, Maple Sirup 
and Sugar; 622, Basket Willow Culture; 700. Pecan Culture; 711, Care 
and Improvement of the Woodlot; 715, Woodlot Products; 744, Pre- 
servative Treatment of Farm Timbers ; 788, The Windbreak as a Farm 
Asset. 



GARDENING 191 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
GARDENING. 

In the broad sense the word horticulture is used to include 
fruit growing, vegetable growing, the production of flowers, 
ornamental trees and shrubs, and the uses of these in beau- 
tiful landscape effects about lands and buildings. We have 
already considered the subject of fruit growing. 

Vegetable Gardening. — The growing of vegetables has 
been given the name olericulture. Farmers may grow vege- 
tables either for home use or for market. 

Gardening is always a special hne of farming, and may be 
called intensive agriculture. Large returns are secured from 
small areas. Several hundred dollars per acre may be ex- 
pected from a good market garden. 

Elements of Success. — To be very successful in growing 
good vegetables several conditions are required: 

1. The soil must be rich and well drained. 

2. It must be supphed with plenty of humus to retain 
moisture. It should be manured heavily. 

3. Sandy loam is necessary if vegetables are to be ready 
for early market. 

4. The soil should be plowed deep and the most thorough 
tillage of crops practiced. 

5. The best methods for the prevention of weeds must 
be practiced. Never allow weeds to scatter seed or spread 
by other means in the garden. 

6. Select good varieties for the table and market, and 
have the products ready for all seasons. 

7. Prepare produce attractively for market. 

8. Gather the best seeds from the best plants for future 
planting; or if seeds are purchased, get the best possible. 

Planning the Garden. — The best plan for planting the 



1.92 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



garden is to have the crops in long rows, not in "beds." 
Have the rows run the longest way of the garden, preferably- 
north and south (Fig. 96), and have the garden long enough 
so that a horse may be used both in plowing the soil and in 
cultivating the crops. 

Plant the rows far enough apart to allow the use of a 
cultivator drawn by horse power. See Table XII in the 
Appendix. ]\Iuch more profit may be gained from a garden 
cultivated by horse power. Too much hand weeding and 




Fig. 96. — ScIhhi] Kir^liiiirig in California with the long rows instead of. small 
beds. Irrigation «airr is jii-t flowing in the center of the garden from the portable 
flume or trough along the edge of the garden. (.Agricultural Education.; 



hoeing is irksome and is too often neglected. Hand labor 
is always more expensive than horse labor in the garden. 

The perennials or permanent crops, such as asparagus, 
rhubarb, horse-radish and many of the sweet herbs, should 
be planted along one side of the garden near the bush fruits. 
They will then be out of the way when plowing the rest of 
the garden (Fig. 97). 

Time of Planting. — Some plants used in the garden are 
very tender and must not be planted in the open garden 
in spring until all danger of frost is over. Others are 
auite hardy and may be planted as early as the soil can 
be prepared. The following lists may be referred to by 
beginners.* 



GARDENING 193 

Hardy vegetables which will endure a frost after sprout- 
ing in the spring: 



asparagus 


endive 


parsnip 


beets 


horse-radish 


peas 


cabbage 


kale 


radish 


carrot 


lettuce 


rhubarb 


cauliflower 


onions 


salsify 


celery 


parsley 


spinach 


cress 


potato 


tiu-nip 



Late and early plantings of several of these may be made. 
Injured by Frost. — These vegetables will be injured by 
a slight frost. They should be planted after all danger of 
it is over: 



beans of all kinds 


muskmelon 


squash 


corn 


okra 


sweet potato 


cucumber 


pepper 


tomato 


egg-plant 


pumpkin 


watermelon 



There are several of this group that should be started 
earlier than the last spring frost. The seed may be planted 
in hot-beds or in window-boxes in the home or school. Egg- 
plant, pepper, tomato and sweet potato are usually thus 
started in early spring. 

Planting Seed. — Such large seeds as corn, beans, peas, 
squash, pumpkin, and melons may be covered with two 
inches or more of soil. Small seeds must be planted very 
shallow. If the soil be rather damp or heavy the planting 
should be shallower than in light, dry soil. When seeds are 
planted the soils should be pressed firmly doAvn upon them, 
so that the soil moisture will soften the seed and cause it 
to sprout. For seeds planted in hills it is well to walk on the 
covered seeds. After the packing is done wdth the foot or 
with a roller, the rake should be drawn lightly over the top 
to leave a loose soil mulch. This saves the moisture by pre- 
venting its escape into the air. 

Setting Garden Plants. — Those garden plants which are 
started indoors for protection should be strong, healthy 
plants when set in the garden after the weather is settled. 



194 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Care must be exercised in setting the plants in the garden. 
Avoid the hot sun, and if possible do the work in the evening. 
Save all the root of the young plant, but a little pruning of 
the leaf surface may be made. 

Make the hole in the mellow garden soil deep enough 
to avoid doubling the root. A dibber is used in the planting. 



s s 
I 




Fig. 97 . — Plan of ten-acre farm-school. The rotation of crops is to be changed to 
suit each locality. (Agricultural Education.) 



Set the plant a little deeper than it grew before. Water, 
if necessary, before filling in all the dirt. Fill in around the 
roots and plant with the very finest soil. Press this down 
well, but leave a little quite loose on top. 

Hot=bed or Cold=frame. — For the starting of early vege- 
tables a hot-bed is of great aid. Plants may be grown in it 
to be set in the garden later. Early crops of lettuce and 



GARDENING 



195 



radish may be grown during late winter. Make a tight 
frame of boards, perhaps six by nine feet, or to suit the size 
of the glass (Fig. 98). This should be about two feet deep 
on the north side and six or eight inches less on the south 
side. This gives a slope to the window sash to catch the 
rays of the sun. 

The hot-bed should have in the bottom ten inches of 
firmly tramped horse manure that has begun to heat a little. 
Cover this with five or six inches of rich garden soil. 




Fia. 98. — A back-yard hot-bed. These sashes were made for this special purpose 
with lap glasses to shed off water. 



The cold-frame is made in the same way but does not 
have the heating manure in the bottom to warm the soil. 
It is usually placed on the south side of a building or high 
fence to secure the best effects from the sun's heat. 

Care must be exercised not to let the temperature in 
these frames vary too much. On cold nights, carpets or 
blankets may be thrown over the glass. When the sun is 
very hot, the glass is raised a little or taken off to let out 
the surplus moisture and hot air (Fig. 99). 

Double Cropping. — Market gardeners often raise two 
or more crops on the same ground in a season. This is called 
dooible cropping. 



196 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



If the crops follow one after another it is succession- 
cropping. Such crops must mature quickly. Early peas or 
radish or lettuce may be followed by tomatoes, late cabbage 
or celery. 

If the crops are grown together in the garden for all or 
part of their time the system is called companion-cropping. 
One of these crops matures early and the other is started 
between the rows before the first crop is harvested (Fig. 100). 
An example would be early onions with cabbage. With 
some vegetables both the crops may be drilled in the row 




Fig. 9 



niarket gardener's hot-beds for tlie forcing ot early vegetrihles and 
starling plants fqr the open ground. tPlaat Indusir\-. i 



together, as when radishes and beets are planted. The 
radishes are harvested by the time the beets need the room. 
Early and late celery may be grown together. When the 
first crop is sold the late crop is ready to use all the space. 

Storing Vegetables. — Vegetables of several kinds may 
be stored for winter use. Onions should be well dried before 
storing. They are to be handled without bruising, and are 
spread in single layers on open shelves in a dry place where 
they will not freeze. 

Celery and cabbage may be transplanted to a cold cellar 
before the ground freezes. Keep the soil moist about the 
roots and they will keep all winter. 



GARDENING 



197 



Beets, turnips, and similar root crops may be covered 
with dry dirt in a cellar box. This will keep them from dry- 
ing too much. 

Tomato vines may be pulled up before heavy frost and 
suspended from the ceiling in a cellar or cool room. As the 
green tomatoes ripen they may be wrapped in paper and 
kept several weeks. Hubbard squashes, pumpkins and 
watermelons need to be handled without bruising and kept 
in a dry, cold cellar. By storing vegetables for late fall and 




Fig. 100. — Harvest in the ppring-timR, frnm thp. schnnl Kanion. (Acricultural 

EJuL'atiuii.) 



winter use, and starting a hot-bed for late winter and early 
spring use, we can supplement the summer garden and have 
vegetables for home use all the year. 

Exercise. — Frost and Rainfall. — Write to the Weather 
Bureau, a'o Washington, and get the summary of the weather 
record for your section. Find the dates when the late spring 
frosts and the early fall frosts occur. I>ook up, also, the 
annual rainfall and see how many inches of this rain falls 
in the summer months. It is good practice for the members 
of the class to keep records of frosts in fall and spring. The 
time of planting garden vegetables may be governed by 
these records. 



198 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



School Gardening. — The principles already given for 
vegetable gardening at home may be used in the school 
garden. Let the rows be long, and each student may have 






DDDDnDDDDDDD 
□ naPDDDDDaDDHSS 




Fio. 101. — Planting plan for a one-acre school-yard, with school garden plota 
at the rear. The trees and shrubs are not scattered over the lawns and playground. 
(Agricultural Ediication.) 

a whole row or a section across several rows instead of a 
small bed. In this way the students can learn to garden as 
at home. They may use the drill and wheel hoe if the school 
can afford these implements. 



GARDENING !»» 

The place for the school garden should be handy to the 
school but not necessarily on the land owned by the school. 
Do not let its location interfere with the school play-ground. 
See the location in Figs. 97 and 101. 

The garden need not be very large, but let the size be 
whatever is available and make the best use of it. 

Equipment and Seeds. — Under most circumstances a 
fence will be required. A neat woven wire fence will keep 
out chickens and dogs as well as larger animals. 

The school need not own the plow and horse tools. The 
horse work will be done by volunteers or by those paid for 
doing it. The school may own several good hand rakes and 
dibbers, a few hoes, a few spades, hues and stakes for marking 
the rows, and some sprinklers for watering. Seeds may be 
purchased in small packages, and schools may also get seeds 
for school gardening by writing to the Bureau of Plant 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Exercise. — Making a Hot-bed. — Allow the larger boys 
to make a hot-bed according to directions in this chapter. 
(See Fig. 98.) Probably most of the materials may be 
brought by students. Two small sashes may be held together 
by two strips of wood along the edges. When it is all made, 
put in the manure and soil, and when the bed has become 
warm plant lettuce and radish seeds. It is well to keep a 
thermometer inside as a guide in governing the temperature. 

What to Plant. — One plan to follow in the spring work 
in the school garden is to plant such crops as will give results 
before school closes for the vacation (Fig. 102). 

Some of the quickest crops for spring use are lettuce, 
radish, early peas, onion sets, spinach, early carrots, and in 
some cases there might be time to grow very early potatoes. 

The plants that could be left growing in the school 
garden through the summer vacation would be late potatoes, 
tomatoes, squashes, egg-plants, late beans, late cabbages, 
14 



200 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

late onions, late beets, turnips, and celery. These should 
be taken care of by some one living near who is appointed 
for the purpose. The summer garden is too often neglected. 
Rhubarb and asparagus may be planted in spring, and when 
well established will be a good feature of the spring garden. 
The fall season is not a bad time to start a school garden. 
At that season we may start vegetables that will live over 
winter, such as kale, winter onions, spinach, and others. 
The cold-frame may be used to store over winter plants that 
were started in the warm fall weather. Lettuce, cabbage, and 




Fig. 102. — Children's garden, Red Wing, Minn. (Agricultural Education.) 

cauliflower may be kept over and get an early start the fol- 
lowing spring. 

The hot-bed may be used in the fall to produce quick 
crops of lettuce and radishes. 

Fruits and flowers should also be used a great deal in 
the school garden. Select those which will bear the blossoms 
and fruit at a time when the school is in session. Early 
strawberries may be used if school is not closed too early. 
Plant the permanent crops at one side of the garden to allow 
free use of the plow in preparing for annual planting. (See 
Fig. 97.) 

Garden Experiments. — The school garden in both city 
and country should be a place to experiment. Something 



GARDENING 



201 



should be learned besides how plants grow. Such experi- 
ments as some of the following may be tried even in window 
boxes, or plant trays (Fig. 103) : 

Determine the influence of depth of planting as sug- 
gested by Fig. 77. But try it in the garden as well as in 
the school-room. 




Fig. 103. — A. The roof garden made by children. The city is a place where 
many experiments may be tried. 

B. School garden work; a lesson in thinning plants. (Agricultural Education.) 



Compare two parts of a row with and without dust- 
mulch methods. 

Try potatoes by the "level culture" and the "hilling up" 
methods. 

Grow crops that are not commonly raised in the section; 
perhaps some new legumes, as alfalfa, cow peas, soy beans, 
or vetch. 

The effects of certain fertilizers or of lime may be tried 



202 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

on certain rows and other rows next to them left untreated. 
In Hke manner the effects of spraying may he tested. 

Many soil experiments may be tried in the garden. Test 
the soil with litnuis i)aper for acids. Test the temperature 
of the soil in spring and fall. 

Cover a scjuare foot with black material, as charcoal, 
and another square with lime. Then test the soil again to 
see if the sun heats one soil more than the other. Which? 

Compare th(^ jiacking, baking, and crusting effects of 
sandy soil and clay soil. 

Germination tests may be made to show the benefits of 
pressing the soil against plantcnl seeds; to show the effect of 
too much water, which excludes the air; to determine the 
length of time for sprouting of seeds of different size, as large 
and small radish seed, or the ti]) kernels and middle kernels 
of an ear of corn. 

Use of Products. — If there be suitable products from the 
school garden let them first Ik; used for making up an exhibit 
at school. Lat{!r they may be sold to get money for the 
garden expenses. 

School Garden Plots at Home. — Much of the summer 
gardening ma}^ be done at honu^ by tlie students. Parents 
should be requested to set aside a stated area for use of the 
pupils at their homes. On this plot they may grow the crops 
desired for school exliibits. Corn and other cro])S may be 
grown in home ])lots better than at school during vacation. 
Let fertilizer exjx'rimcnts, cultur(> trials, and si)raying be 
conducted by the students on the home plots. Suitable 
bulletins and leaflets may be obtained outlining contests 
to be carri(Ml on during the vacation. The products may be 
shown at school in the fall. 

Ornamental Gardening. — The appropriate use of trees, 
shrubs, vines, greensward, or grass plots, and flowering 
plants to adorn a i)lace is sometimes called landscape gar- 
dening. Too little thought is given to this by the average 



GARDENING 



203 



person. The scho(>l ki'o^ukI'^ 'I'll*! ^li<' home KrouiuLs too 
oiUni show no ornamental ])hintin^;. 

Principles of Planlinj;. — Thcii" should \w a lawn on which 
gHH'n fi;ra.sH is growinji; thrilLily, but whicli is well trinuned. 
This should cover most of the area. 

Tlui trees and shrubs should not be j^lanted in rows nor 
scattered at random over this grecnisward. They should bo 
in groups, masses, borders, and corners (Fig. 104). Large 
trees may be in rows along roads or streets. 




Tia. 104. — ArrmiKcMiioiit of MlinibH iit thn \><iy» iind angleu of llm walliH U> f{ivt> a 

pUtiiMiiiK picturo. 



Shrubs may fringe curved walks and driveways, but 
are mon; satisfactory if massed in tlu; angl(^s or (Mwves of 
the driveways. Let them form tint footing about the 
foundations of buildings— hiding the naked feet of the 
titructure. 

Masses of shrubs and trees or vines on trellises should 
liid(^ any unsightly stru(;tures from view (Fig. 105). 

Jict all the planting assume; grace; and natural (;urvature 
of outline. ]3o not prmu; the evergreens ami shrubs to 



204 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

assume grotesque and artificial forms. Such were the fashions 
ot ornamental gardening many years ago. 

The lower branches of evergreens and shrubs should be 
left near the ground and carry the pleasing effect of blendinjz 
the foliage with the greensward (Fig. lOG). 

Vines may be used about porches and on trellises over 
the corners and in the angles of buildings. They remedy the 
angular effects and lend a softening beauty to the rugged 
structure. 

The School Grounds should come in for their full share 
of attention in the study of ornamental planting. Dr. L. H. 



Fia. 105. — Vines are here used to cover a glaring white stone building. The mass 
of trees at the left is u.sed to hide low buildings. 

Bailey has described the conditions on the average rural 
school grounds as "bare, harsh, cheerless, immodest." These 
are some reasons assigned for children disliking the school. 

Let a change be made. Have plans made before the 
opening of spring. 

Exercise. — Plans for Planting. — Make a sketch of the 
grounds showing the permanent structures, well, fences, 
and any trees now growing. Add to this the proposed plant- 
ings for the spring. Indicate these by lines such as are used in 
Figs. 97 and 101. Use United States Farmers' Bulletins 185 
and 248 to aid in making the plans. The former will suggest 
what plants to use. Students may supply these from home, 



GARDENING 



205 



or they may be obtained from the native woods or from 
nurseries. 

Planting may be done on any suitable days in early 
spring. Protect the roots of trees well before they are 
planted. The easiest way is to make a little trench, put the 




■mm iirinni>«>«w^a«^- 



Fio. 106. — Evergreens may be planted in close iii.-issos aiiil iiKo .i^ m ■!. i-ciraenB 

roots in these and cover with dirt until the permanent places 
are ready. Evergreens need to be handled with the greatest 
care, because they are constantly losing moisture through 
the leaves. The soil should not be removed from the roots 
at all while being transplanted. They may be set into small 
boxes while being carried, or the soil may be kept on by 
wrapping with old carpet or sacking. 



Boila. 



REVIEW. 

1. What is horticulture? Olericulture? 

2. Give several elements of success in growing good vegetables. 

3. Describe a good plan for the vegetable garden. 

4. Name ten garden plants that can stand some frost. 

5. Name ten that are injured by frost. 

6. Give directions for depth of planting seeds in heavy and hght 

Tell how to set out tomatoes and other garden plants. 

8. What is a hot-bed? A cold-frame? 

9. In what two ways is n hot-bed heated? 

10. What are the uses of a hot-bed? 

11. What is succession-cropping? Give examples. 

12. What is companion-cropping? Give examples. 



206 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

13. Tell how to store for winter use some of the common vegetables. 

14. What is the best kind of fence for the school garden? 

15. What are some of the best vegetables for the spring garden at 
school or at home? 

16. What ones may be planted in spring for fall use? 

17. What ones may be started in fall and live over winter? 

18. Mention some experiments to try in the school garden. 

19. Should shrubs and trees be scattered over the lawn? 

20. Where should they be planted? 

21 . Tell of good uses for vines. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 21S, School Gar- 
den; 232, Okra; 254, Cucumbers; 289, Beans: 354, Onion Culture; 
433, Cabbage; 434, Onion Seed and Sets. 255 and 647, Home Vegetable 
Garden; 494, Lawns; 583, Moles; 642, Tomatoes; 707, Cantaloupes; 
818, Small Vegetable Garden : 839, Canning ; 841, Drying. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
FRUIT PRODUCTION. 



There is an active interest in the growing of good fruit. 
Almost every farmer is interested in the subject. He may 
grow it for his own use if not for market. Fruit may be con- 
sidered among the luxuries of the table. As the people 
become more prosperous they call for more such luxuries. 
Thus the demand for fruit of the best quality is increasing. 

The Orchard. — The production of fruit naturally involves 
more time than the growth of most farm crops. For this 
reason more care must be exercised to have the best condi- 
tions possible from the very beginning. 

The Orchard Site.^ — Exposure, soil, and air-drainage are 
all-important considerations. If the orchard is somewhat 
above the surrounding land, the cold air of frosty spring 
nights can drain away. Thus the early blossoms may be 
saved from injury. Strong westerly winds are often inju- 
rious to trees and, therefore, an easterly or northeasterly 
slope is preferred. If a south slope were chosen this might 
cause more movement of sap in winter or very early spring. 
We should avoid forcing the spring growth too early. 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 207 

Heavy soils are well suited to the growth of apples and 
pears; while the lighter soils are better for peaches, American 
plums and grapes. 

The propagation of fruit trees at home and in nurseries 
has been described, (See Chap. III.) 

When to Plant Fruit Trees. — The age of a fruit tree is 
counted from the time of its first spring growth after b idding 
or grafting. 

Peach and plum trees are usually transplanted to the 
orchard after one season's growth in the nursery. They are 
then called yearling trees. 

Apple trees for orchard planting may be either one or two 
years old. Some orchardists prefer the younger trees, while 
others want them older. 

The planting may be done in late fall or early spring, the 
latter being preferred. 

Setting Orchard Trees. — As much fibrous root should 
be preserved as possible. The roots should be kept from 
the wind and sun to prevent drying out. As soon as delivered 
at the orchard, heel them in. That means to cover the roots 
with soil in a temporary trench. 

The holes should be large and some of the best loose dirt 
thrown in the bottom before the tree is placed in it. The 
roots are to be straightened out, not bent. Pack the richest 
dirt well, but leave a mulch of loose soil on top to prevent 
evaporation of soil moisture. 

In dry weather and in dry climates it is well to haul 
water in barrels or tanks and water each tree soon after it is 
set. The loose soil is to be put on after the water has soaked 
into the soil. 

Principles of Pruning. — The pruning of trees is very 
essential in securing the best results in fruit growing. Var- 
ious parts naturally crowd each other; the fruit is smaller 
as a result of this. Twigs or branches become diseased and 
should be cut out. Limbs may break in the wind and should 



208 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



be sawed off smoothly so the wounds may heal quickly 
In spite of these conditions we find many old orchards that 
are neglected and never pruned. 

Young Trees. — When a young orchard is set out the roots 
should be examined and any broken or split surface made 
smooth with a sharp knife. The straggling or extra long 
roots should be cut back. The tops should be cut back to 
a suitable height. With a one-year-old tree this may cause 
the formation of side branches to make the future head of 



Fig. 107. 



Fiy. 108. 




Fig. 107. — Peacp tree headed too high. 

Fig. 108. — Low-neaded peach tree at pruning time. 



the tree. It is best to head trees low enough so they will be 
within easy reach of pickers. Compare Figs. 107, 108. 
Fig. 109 shows the relative position of the young twigs that 
will become the future main branches: (A) represents the 
position of these on an imaginary circle drawn around the 
tree. Here there are three branches; perhaps four would do 
as well. These should be at different heights on the main 
stem (B), to avoid splitting away from each other when 
there is a heavy wind or load of fruit. 

Annual Pruning. — As the trees grow older it is well to 
cut back a part of the new growth each year to induce proper 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



209 



branching of the long shoots. This will induce the formation 
of fruit buds, fruit spurs and future fruit crops lower down 
on the branches, and the support will be better- 




> 



Fio. 109. — A shows the choice limbs which extend in different directions from the 
main axis; others are cut away. B shows the same limb of the mature tree. If they 
dre the same height they will be split off too easily by wind when loaded with fruit 




Fig. 110.— Yearling peach tree, before and after pruning. 

Cut out some side twigs where they strike across through 
the tree top. Prune where they are too thick; such pruning 
is equivalent to thinning the fruit, making it larger. Let 
in the sunlight. Cut out all dead or diseased or broken parts. 
Prune where branches rub together. (Fig. 110.) 



210 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Care in Pruning. — Avoid cutting very large branches if 
several smaller cuts will accomplish the same result. Large 
wounds are apt to lead to internal decay. 

Leave the cut surfaces as smooth as possible. If a saw is 
ever used, the wound should be smoothed with a knife. 

Cut side limbs as close to the main stems as possible. 
Never leave stubs (Fig. Ill), 

Cover the exposed tissues of the larger cut surfaces with 
paint or grafting wax to prevent weathering and decay. 

Time to Prune. — Pruning by pinching off small shoots 
and disbudding can be practised to very good advantage in 



ryf'j^ f 





Fio. 111. — Side limbs should be cut very close to the main stem, so the place may 
heal over and get " well." A was properly pruned; B was pruned too far out. 

the summer time (Fig. 112). The main pruning, however, 
is done in very early spring before the sap begins to flow. 
Some plants, such as grape vines, will bleed or lose much sap 
if pruned too late in the spring. 

Exercise. — Fruit Buds. — Twigs bearing both fruit buds 
and leaf buds may be selected from the different kinds of 
fruit trees in the neighborhood. Compare these and learn 
to recognize fruit buds on trees in winter (Fig. 113), 

Exercise. — Pruyiing. — A small tree or upright branch 
from the wood-lot may be cut and brought to school. Let 
pupils first mark with chalk what limbs and twigs should 
be taken off. Then have the pruning done in accordance 
with the lesson taught in Fig. 109. Either sharp knives or 
special pruning shears (Fig. 114) may be used in this exercise. 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



211 



Culture. — The young orchard should be kept growing 
rapidly. Considerable organic matter and nitrogen in the 
soil will help produce this early growth. To obtain these 
materials the best fruit growers sow cover crops in the orchard 
each year, to be plowed under in the spring. If these crops 
are composed partly of legumes, such as crimson clover and 




Fig. 112. — Young peach tree, summer pruned by pinching off small shoots. 



winter vetch, they will gather the nitrogen for the young 
trees to use. After the cover crop or green manure is plowed 
under in spring the ground is kept well harrowed until mid- 
summer (Fig. 115); then the cover crop is again sown. One 
influence of the fall cover crop is to check late fall growth, 
especially in peach trees, and cause the season's growth to 
harden up for winter. 



21!^ 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The first year or two some orchardists grow a crop for 
market between the trees. In such cases this crop should 
have clean culture until July or August. Fall cultivation 
is not desirable, as the young shoots are more apt to winter- 




FiQ. 113. — Fruit buds and spurs of four common fruit trees, apple and pear at 
left, plum and cherry at right. 

kill if kept growing too late. For economy of space peaches 
are frequently used as fillers or temporary trees, in rows 
between apple trees. The peach trees come into bearing by 
the third or fourth summer and may be past their prime by 
the time the apple trees are large enough to fill the space 
between rows. The peach trees are then cut out. Where 




FtG. 114. — Several forms of hand pruning shears. 



from 



fillers are used, the permanent trees should be set 
thirty to forty feet apart, according to variety and soil. 

Varieties. — Choose varieties carefully. There are many 
good varieties to choose from, in all kinds of fruit. Select 
those which are known to do well in your own climate and 
on similar soils. Prof. M. A. Blake, of the New Jersey 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



213 



Experiment Station, names the following varieties of peaches 
in order of ripening as a suitable list from which to choose: 
Carman, Hiley, Champion, Belle of Georgia, Elberta, Fox 
Seedling, Edgemont Beauty, Iron Mountain, and Krummel 
October, 

Varieties of apples are classified as summer, fall, and 
winter, according to the season when they are in prime con- 




Fro, lis. — Cultivating an orchard with a disk harrow. Where the land ib 
level enough to prevent bad washing of tlie soil, orohards should be cultivated 
throughout the first half of each summer. Plows and disk harrows may be used in 
early spring. Th^se are followed by spike-toothed harrows or light cultivators. 



dition of maturity, 
following lists : 

Su77imer 
Yellow Transparent 
Williams Early Red 
Duchess of Oldenburg 
Maiden Blush 
Gravenstein 



Good varieties may be chosen from the 



Fall 
Wealthy 
Twenty Ounce 
Mcintosh Red 
Grimes Golden 
Jonathan 



Winter 
Tompkins King 
Baldwin 
Rome Beauty 
York Imperial 
Stayman Winesap 



The above is merely a suggestive list. The planter is to 
be governed in his choice of varieties by the results of other 
growers about him in his vicinity. Only one or two varieties 
of each season should be grown for market purposes. 



214 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Exercise. — Studying Apples. — In the fall or winter let 
students each bring to school good type specimens of apples. 
Let each tell the names of the apples he brings. The col- 
lection may be studied and the varieties compared so the 
students will learn to know many of them. At noon or 
recess on the last day of this study let the apples be cut 
into sections so that they may be sampled as to flavor, 
texture, and value. 

Strawberries. — One of the best fruits for home use, as 
well as for market, is the strawberry. There are not many 
difficulties in growing this crop successfully. Probably the 




Fio. IKJ. — The hedge-row system of raising strawberries. TTie straw mulch is 
kept between the rows until after picking time. 



greatest difficulty is in harvesting the crop after it is grown. 
Strawberries thrive best in a very rich black sandy loam. 

Two Methods of Planting. — There are several methods 
of planting strawberries. Two art; here described, (1) the 
hedge-row system and (2) the matted-row system. In either 
system the plants may be set in the early spring, or in 
August if the weather is favorable. In the hedge row system 
(Fig. IIG) the rows are three feet apart and the plants are set 
two feet apart in the rows. The runners, which all strawber- 
ries send out, are kept cut off with a hoe or wheel cutter; 
except that about three runners are placed and allowed to take 
root between each two plants, making the plants about six 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 215 

inches apart in the row. Frequent cultivation is practised 
throughout the first season and the blossoms are picked 
off to i)revent any fruit from forming. About December 
first a clean mulch of straw or other clean litter is spread 
over tlu; soil and vines to a depth of two or three inches. 
In spring this mulch is parted just a little over the rows to 
let the green leaves come through, and the mulch remains 
on the soil between the rows until the crop of fruit is all 
picked. Then the plants are mown and the mulch and tops 
raked and burned. This destroys the diseases and insects. 
Thorough cultivation is given until late fall and a mulch is 
again put on as before. After two or three crops are obtained, 
the plants are plowed under. 

In the matted row system of planting, the plants are set 
three and one-half or four feet apart and the plants about 
two feet apart in the row. Cultivation is given the first 
year, but many of the runners sent out by the plants are 
allowed to " take root " and form new plants in the 
middles or aisles within about one foot on each side of the 
mother plants. A mulch should be applied for winter, but 
it is again removed in the spring. After the crop is picked 
each year the weeds are pulled by hand from the wide matted 
row of plants formed by the runners. The narrow strips 
are cultivated as before. When two crops are obtained the 
vines should be plowed under. 

Comparison of the Two Systems. — The hedge-row system 
requires more vigilant care to prevent runners from taking 
root, and an equal amount of horse power cultivation is 
given to the plants. But there is very little hand weeding 
necessary, as in the matted row. The mulch kept on 
the soil through the berry-forming months keeps the fruit 
cleaner; it keeps down weeds, and conserves the soil moist- 
ure. In the hedge-row system the berries are larger and 
cleaner ; the yield of marketable fruit is greater, and the work 
of picking is less. 
15 



216 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Varieties. — The many varieties of strawberries are 
grouped under two heads (Fig. 117), (a) Those with -perfect 
blossoms, bearing both stamens and pistils, and able to pro- 
dace fruit without the aid of pollen from other plants; (6) 
Imperfect varieties, those which have no stamens to bear 
pollen, having pistils only; these must get their pollen from 
other perfect varieties near them. Perfect varieties may be 
planted alone. Imperfect varieties must grow by the side of 
or near perfect ones which blossom at the same time. The 
pollen is carried from one blossom to another by bees and 
other insects. 

For the choice of varieties and methods of growing 
strawberries reference is made to U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 198. 




FlQ. 117. — Flowers of strawberry, pistillate on left and perfect on right. 

Other Small Fruits. — In addition to the fruits Avhich 
have just been described, the home fruit garden should con- 
tain such fruits as grapes, black and red raspberries, black- 
berries, currants, and perhaps gooseberries. These are all so 
easily grown that very little special training is necessary for 
any one to produce enough fruit for home use. The site for 
the home fruit garden should be chosen not far from the resi- 
dence. The soil may then be enriched and put in good tilth. 

Pruning Small Fruits. — The beginner has greatest diffi- 
culty in questions of pruning. When the plants are being 
set out, all broken or decayed roots should be trimmed off; 
smooth-cut surfaces only should come next to the soil. The 
top should be cut back somewhat in proportion to the reduc- 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



217 



tion of the root area in transplanting. This maintains the 
proper balance of root and top in the next season's growth. 
Grapes need very little of the old wood left for the fol- 
lowing season's growth of vines and crop of fruit. The fruit 
is annually borne on shoots of the same season's growth 
(Fig. 118). Better grapes are obtained by cutting away con- 
siderable of the old wood each winter. 




Fig. 118. — The grape-xnne showing blossom clusters on the new shoots. 



Raspberries and Blackberries both bear their blossoms 
and berries on the end of new shoots. These shoots come 
from the last year's canes. In summer, after the crop is 
picked, cut out all of the old canes, and either head back 
or cut away entirely many of the young canes. This heavy 
pruning induces the growth of new canes from the crowns. 
These will bear the fruit branches next season. 

Currants and Gooseberries should not be pruned so much 
each year. The fruit is borne on both old and new wood, 
and only the very oldest parts need to be cut out. 



218 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The Fruit Crop. — When good fruit has been grown it 
should never be handled carelessly. Never shake apples, 
peaches, or other kinds of fruit to the ground. Pick the crop 




Fig, 119. — Picking apples from ladders with sacks hanging from shoulders. The 
fruit is not bruised. 



A 



.■«^W""««fTK 




L- 





B 


t 




' ^/vsMfSfe;:*" 




Nf"*' 


«.,.*«? w ^^ - 



Fig. 120. — A. A good way to pack the best peaches for market. The crates 
each hold six half-peck baskets, and are called Georgia carriers. 

B. Sorting apples. For marketing they are packed in tight bo.xes and barrels. 

carefully, handling it almost as carefully as eggs. Bruised 
spots are the first to decay (Fig. 119), 

Pack the perishable kinds of fruit — grapes, berries, 
peaches, plums, and cherries — in suitable form for immediate 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 219 

sale in the markets (Fig. 120, A). Peaches, plums, apples, and 
pears should be graded according to size, color, and other 
market features. More money is thus secured for the whole 
crop. When large and small apples are sold in the same 
barrel or box they bring only the price of small apples (Fig. 
120). Grading machines are in use for sorting peaches or 
plums into several sizes; but the hand method is most com- 
mon. Study the figures showing methods of picking, sorting, 
packing, and marketing. 

Summer apples keep only a short time and must be mar- 
keted soon after they are ripe. Late fall and winter apples 
are often stored for sale or use later in the winter. A good 
method is to pack them in closed barrels and store in a cold 
cellar at a temperature just a little above freezing. When 
exposed to dry cellar air they shrivel badly. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give reasons for pruning trees. 

2. Tell what side limbs to save in pruning young trees just set in 
the orchard. 

3. What annual pruning should be done in the orchard ? 

4. Give several rules to observe in careful pruning. 

5. Describe a good orchard site. 

6. Describe good culture methods for young orchards. 

7. What are fillers in an apple orchard ? Tell how used. 

8. Name several varieties of peaches. How many of these have 
you seen ? 

9. Name some good summer apples. Fall. Winter. How many 
varieties do you know at sight ? 

10. Describe the hedge-row system of growing strawberries. 

11. Describe the matted-row system. 

12. In what respects is one better than the other ? 

13. What are perfect varieties of strawberries? Imperfect ? 

14. Why should the grower know to which group any variety 
belongs ? 

15. Give suggestions regarding the pruning of grapes. 

16. What pruning Ls done for raspberries and blackberries? When? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 154 and 727, Home Fruit 
Garden; 181, Pruning; 471, Grapes; 482, Pears; 492, Enemies of Apple; 
491, Apple Orchard; 631, 632, 633, Peaches; 643, Blackberries; 644, 
Grape Juice; 664, Strawberries; 670, Field Mice; 685, Persimmons; 696, 
Citrus Fruits; 702, Rabbits; 709, Muscadine Grapes; 710, Bridge 
Grafting; 728, Dewberry; 763, Barkbeetles; 804, Aphids. 



220 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



CHAPTER XX. 
INSECTS. 

Farmers, market gardeners, and fruit growers have their 
enemies to combat. Their crops and animals are attaclced 
by numerous species of insects. It is estimated that hun- 
dreds of millions of dollars are lost by the American farmers 
annually from this cause. Fruit that is infested or deformed 
by insects will bring much lower prices than first-class fruit. 

Structure. — Insects are six-legged animals with the body 
made up of segments or covered with a series of rings. There 
are two pairs of wings, except that flies and mosquitoes have 
only one pair, and in a few species of all orders the wings 
are undeveloped or are entirely wanting, as in the case of 
the bedbug. All insects in the adult stage have the body 
divided into three parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdO' 
men. The head bears the mouth parts, the antennce or 
feelers, and the eyes. The thorax, or chest, bears the wings 
and three pairs of legs. See Fig. 122d. 

Many insects have enormous powers of flight, as in the 
cases of the dragon fly and the honey bee. The Rocky 
Mountain locust is a migrating insect and probabty flies a 
hundred miles or more at a single flight. Some of the larger 
beetles seldom fly very far at a time. 

How Insects Feed. — The mouth parts of insects are ot 
two kinds: those fitted for biting, as in grasshoppers and 
beetles, and those suited for sucking the food, as in mos- 
quitoes, bedbugs, bees, butterflies, and others. 

Those with biting mouth parts have two pairs of jaws 
with which they cut and chew their food (Fig. 138). They 
consume the entire substance on which they feed, as bark, 
leaves, fruit, flowers, or other tissues (Fig. 121). Such insects, 
when found on the outside of plants, may be killed by the 



INSECTS 221 

application of some poisonous material to the plants on which 
they feed, as when we put poison on potato vines to kill the 
potato beetles. When biting insects such as bark beetles 
and tree borers feed in protected places it is impossible to 
apply the poison, and some other remedy must be found if 
possible. To decide what remedy to use we must first know 
the kind of mouth parts and the feeding habits of the insects. 
Insects with sucking mouth parts usually live upon the 
sap of plants or the blood of animals; a few of them, such as 
bees, butterflies, and moths, largely feed upon the nectar of 
flowers. The stone-fly and a few others get most of their 




Fig. 121. — Bean-weevil, natural size and enlarged, and a much infested boan. 
(From Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 

food when in the larva or youngest stage and have no true 
mouth parts when they come to the adult stage. Such 
insects live only a short time in the adult stage, their chief 
purpose being to lay eggs for the next brood; when this is 
done they soon die. 

The larva form of the butterfly has a biting mouth, while 
the adult has a sucking mouth. This is also true of flies and 
mosquitoes. 

As sucking insects get their food from the inside and not 
outside the objects on which they feed, we cannot poison 
them. We must resort to more difficult methods of fighting 
them. 

Contact insecticides are substances which will kill insects 
by comiing into contact with them or by covering their bodies. 



222 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The manner in which these insecticides kill is interesting. 
Insects breathe through pores or openings in the body — not 
through noses or mouths. When any material clogs these 
breathing pores the result is death. Suitable materials for 
this purpose are oils and powders. The oils may be mixed 
with other materials to prevent any damage to the plants on 
which the insects live. Kerosene emulsion and the miscible 
oils are so diluted that no damage will result to the trees 
or other plants. 




Fig. 122. — Moulting of a grasshopper: a nymph ready to change; b the skin 
eplit along the back and the adult emerging; c continues the process, and at d the 
insect is drying out. (From Smith's "I'lsect Friends and Enemies.") 

It must be remembered that these contact insecticides 
really smother the insects and must necessarily be applied 
when the insects are present. They should not be applied 
in advance, as poisons may be, to prevent the attacks of 
the insects. 

How Insects Grow. — The skin or outside coat of insects 
becomes very hard and ■wall not stretch. When a growing 
insect has become so large as to entirely fill this coat, a new, 
soft coat forms underneath and the old one is shed. This 
process of shedding the coat is called moulting (Fig. 122). 
The skin is moulted several times during the life of the insect, 
and each time the insect becomes larger or changes in other 



INSECTS 223 

respects. The chief changes with many insects occur in the 
last two moults. As insects have no bones or inside skeleton 
it is usually considered that the outside skin is really a 
skeleton. In this sense they may be said to have an outside 
skeleton. Muscles of the insect are attached to this skeleton; 
and sometimes the texture is very hard and horn-like. 

Complete and Incomplete Changes. — All insects may be 
classified on the basis of the amount of change occurring 
in their structure during the last two moults. (1) Those 
making the least change in structure and appearance during 
the last two moults are said to have incomplete changes. 
Examples of this are the true bugs and the grasshoppers. 
(2) Those making very great changes in structure and out- 
side appearance at the times of the last two moults are said 
to have complete changes; this is seen in the wasps, bees, 
butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and mosquitoes. 

Four Stages in the Life. — Insects with complete changes 
may be said to have four stages in their lives: (1) Egg stage, 
(2) larva stage, (3) pupa stage, (4) adult stage (Fig. 123). 

The larva is the growing stage. It is during this stage 
that most of the eating is done; and with some insects enough 
is eaten during this stage to last them through the other 
stages of life. Some forms of larva will consume several 
times their own weight of food in a single day. 

The pupa is the resting or sleeping stage for many insects. 
The larva has enclosed itself in a case of some kind; some- 
times it spins a silken covering called a cocoon, as in the case 
of the silk worm and others. During this quiet resting stage 
the insects go through a great many changes. The digestive 
organs are very much changed; wings are grown and ready 
to unfold; legs are present instead of mere claws or pads; 
compound eyes are developed; often a very different mouth 
is formed; antennae or feelers are grown upon the head. The 
pupa stage sometimes lasts over winter, and in other insects 
or other broods it may last only a few weeks. 



224 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

The adult emerges from the pupa case with the new set 
of organs just mentioned. It does not look like the larva 
that formed the pupa case about itself, and yet it is the same 
individual. When a butterfly comes from its pupa it crawls 
upon some object, as a plant stem, where its folded wings may 




Fig. 123. — The currant worm: a, adults; h, Ian® in various stages of devel- 
opment; c, pupa; e, eggs along veins on leaf. (From Smith's "Insect Friends and 
Enemies.") 

hang downvv'ard. The wings gradually unfold or "grow" 
and in about twenty or thirty minutes they may be of full 
size and firm enough to use in carrying the insect in the air. 
The adult never moults and never grows any larger. 

Special names are given to some forms of larvae. The 
larvae of butterflies and moths are called caterpillars. The 
larva of a beetle is called a g7'ub. A maggot is the larval 
form of the fly. Mosquito wrigglers are really the larvae. 



INSECTS 225 

Nymph is a name given to the larval stage of dragon flies, 
stone flies, grasshoppers, and some others having incomplete 
life changes. 

Exercise. — Collecting Caterpillars. — Late in fall let 
pupils bring to school caterpillars or other larva? of several 
kinds which they may find. Let these be placed in boxes 
with wire or cloth gauze tied over them. Place in the bot- 
tom of the box some soil and insert in this some of the twigs 
with leaves for the larvae to feed upon. If the caterpillars 
are found on plants, that will indicate what food they pre- 
fer. If they form pupa cases in the cage, these may be kept 
in a cool place until the warm weather of spring brings them 
out. Or they may be induced to transform to the adult 
stage by bringing them into a warm room for a few weeks 
in February or March. 

Exercise. — Collecting Cocoons. — Cocoons and pupa may 
be collected during the \\dnter months and brought to school, 
where the transformations may be watched. 

Exercise. — Making Glass Cages for Insects. — Let the 
pupils bring a few tin cans or six-inch flower pots, some 
large glass chimneys, such as lamp or lantern chimneys, 
and cloth netting. Damp soil may be kept in the pots and 
the chimneys placed over them with gauze tied on the top 
of the chimneys (Fig. 124). The cages may be used at school 
for insects that are to be observed by the pupils. Suitable 
plants may be kept fresh by inserting the stems in a small 
bottle of water inside the cage. 

Insect Enemies of Man. — Among the many kinds of 
insects there are those that are beneficial and others that 
are injurious. Some of the injurious insects are found 
attacking man himself; others his prepared food and cloth- 
ing; and others harass the domestic animals, or attack the 
crops in the field, garden, or orchard. 

Mosquitoes. — Mosquitoes are not only troublesome 
pests; they are worse than that, because they are carriers 



226 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



of the germs of human diseases. Malaria is spread by mos- 
quitoes, and in no other way. These malaria organisms 
are taken into the sj^stem of the mosquito with the blood 
sucked from diseased people. In the mosquito's body certain 




Fig. 124. — A. An insect breeding cage, easily made. (Agricultural Education.) 
B. Moth and pupa cases mounted on cotton under glass. Male cecropia moth 
above, male polyphemus moth below. (U. S. Office of Experiment Stations). 



changes take place in the life of the organisms which can 
take place nowhere else. If the mosquitoes were extermi- 
nated the organisms of malaria could not thrive. When a 
mosquito attacks a well person some of the germs of malaria 
are apt to be forced into the blood of the person by the sucking 
mouth parts of the insect. Thus every new case of malaria 
is started. 



INSECTS 



227 



The remedy is easy to understand. If the ponds or pools 
of standing water are taken care of, the malarial mosquitoes 
will not be able to find suitable breeding places. These 
stagnant waters may be drained away, or covered with crude 
oil, or fish may be kept in them to feed upon the wrigglers. 
Barrels and other vessels of water must be emptied or covered 
with oil. Houses should be screened to keep out mosquitoes. 
It is believed that the malarial mosquitoes are never active 
during the day when the sun is shining. 

Fig. 126 



Fig. 125. 




Fig. 125. — Malarial mosquito wriggler at left, common at right. (Div, Ent., 
U. S. Dept. Agric.) 

Fig. 126. — Malarial mosquito below, common above. (Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. 
Agric.) 

It is not difficult to distinguish the malarial mosquitoes 
from the other common forms. The position of the wrigglers 
in the water when at rest is parallel to the surface of the 
water, while the resting position of the common mosquito 
wriggler is nearly perpendicular to the surface of the water 
(Fig. 125). When the adult malarial mosquito is attacking 
a person the body is nearly perpendicular to the surface 
attacked; while with the common mosquito it is nearly level 
with the surface (Fig. 126). 

Yellow fever is also spread by mosquitoes of a particular 



228 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



group (Fig. 127). This is a common form in the South. 
The bodies oi' the insects are striped with bands of black 
and white. By removing the breeding places of these insects 
the yellow fever disease has at times been stamped out in 
New Orleans and elsewhere. 

Exercise. — To Study Mosquito Wrigglers. — Put a glass 
of water from a rain barrel, with a few wrigglers in it, on a 
window sill. Cover it with a sheet of wire gauze to catch any 
that transform. Observe the breathing tubes that are held 
up to the surface of the water when the wrigglers are at rest. 




Fig. 127. — The yellow-fever mosquito, larva, pupa, adult. (From Smith's "Insect 
Friends and Enemies.") 



Flies. — The eggs of flies are laid in moist masses of decay- 
ing refuse, such as manure, dead animals, slop, and many 
kinds of garbage. When the eggs hatch the maggots use 
those materials as food and grow rapidly. Then they cover 
themselves with a leather-like pupa case, from which they 
emerge in a few days as adult flies (Fig. 128). The time 
required for the eggs to develop into adult flies is only a 
few days. A few of the adult flies live over winter and these 
are the ones that start the first broods when warm weather 
returns. By the end of the summer the number of flies 
has increased enormously. 



INSECTS 



229 



Diseases of man are carried on the feet and mouth parts 
of house flies (Fig. 129). The swarms of flies seeking suitable 
places to lay their eggs visit all kinds of filthy places. Again 




Fig. 128.- 



-A Tachinid fly: its eggs on body of caterpillar, larva and pupa. 
Smith's " Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



(From 



these same flies visit the kitchens and dining rooms in search 
of food. Germs of disease, as well as others, are carried 
from the filthy places to the food over which they crawl. 
House flies may well be called typhoid flies. 




Fig. 129. — The house fly; larva with details at right, pupa case at left. 
Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



(From 



Two good remedies are easy to apply. (1) Clean up the 
near-by garbage heaps and filthy places where flies could 
breed. Sprinkle diluted carbolic acid all about such places 



230 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



frequently. This will help to keep flies away from there and 
will kill many of the germs of typhoid fever and other dis- 
eases which might be there. (2) Screen the kitchen and 
dining-room well to keep all flies away from the hmiian food. 
The Clothes Moth. — These insects lay their eggs in stored 
furs, woollen clothing, and other such places. The young 
eat the garments or materials in which they find themselves, 
thus doing much damage (Fig. 130). The adult moths do 
no damage except to start new broods of young. There 
are several remedies. Probably the best is to keep the adult 




Fia. 130. — A clothes moth, with its caterpillar in and out of case. 
" Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



(From Smith 



moths away from the stored materials by keeping these 
articles securely closed up in tight boxes or moth-proof bags, 
in which there is some odor not agreeable to the moths. Such 
odors are tar, camphor, naphtha, tobacco, and red cedar. 
Moth-proof bags may be made of new muslin, sewed well 
and closely tied after articles are put in. Clothes motha 
have no taste for cotton goods. Articles will be well pro- 
tected from moths if kept in a trunk in cold storage. The 
low temperature prevents the development of the insects. 

Grain Moths. — The adult grain moth is seen flying about 
homes or places where corn or other grain has been stored. 
Its habits and its size cause it to be mistaken for the adult 



INSECTS 231 

clothes moth. The eggs are laid on corn and the small grains. 
The larva eats its way into the kernels, and emerges only 
when it has transformed to the adult stage. When these 
insects are in great numbers they do much damage. 

Stored grain may be treated by evaporating a dish of 
bisulphide of carbon on top of the bin of grain. The fumes 
settle into the crevices and kill the insects (see Appendix). 
The bins should be made as close or air-tight as possible 
during this treatment. Corn in open cribs is seldom troubled 
wich grain moths, except in warm climates, as the cold of 
winter checks their breeding. 

Chinch Bug. — This is a showy insect, in spite of the fact 
that it is less than one-fifth of an inch long, the body being 
nearly black and the wings white. The chinch bug is a true 
bug, with a sucking mouth, and has a continuous growing 
stage from the egg to the adult form. The insects attack 
wheat, corn, and other grains and grasses, sucking the sap 
and often destroying the crop or reducing the yield. It lives 
over winter in the adult stage. A single female can lay sev- 
eral hundred eggs which soon hatch and the numbers become 
very great by midsummer. After a wheat crop is killed or 
has ripened they hunt for other succulent crops, such as corn. 
As only the adults can fly, the greatest numbers have to 
migrate to the next field by crawling. Efforts have been 
successfully made to stop their march from one field to 
another by plowing deep furrows in which tar, kerosene, or 
other materials may be used to destroy the insects. It is 
also well to practise rotation of crops, and to plow the fields 
in fall in places where the chinch bugs are abundant. 

Potato Beetles. — The Colorado, or ten-lined, potato 
beetle is kno\\Ti well by all who raise potatoes (Fig. 131). 
It passes the winter in the pupa stage, and the adult, appear- 
ing in spring, lays clusters of yellow eggs on the under side 
of potato leaves early in the season. These hatch into small, 
soft, red grubs which eat the leaves. The best remedies 
It) 



232 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



are sprays of poison on the growing crop. Paris green or 
arsenate of lead is mixed with water or with Bordeaux 
(bor-do') mixture and sprayed on the vines two or three 
times at intervals of a few weeks. The Bordeaux mixture 
(see Appendix) is used with the poison on potatoes for several 
reasons. It prevents the injury to leaves by the strong 
poisons. It holds the poison on the plants longer. It helps 
to prevent the early and the late blight diseases of potatoes. 




Fig. 131. — Colorado potato beetle: a, egg; b, larvae; c, pupa; d, adult beetles. 
(From Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies,") 



The Codling=moth or Apple Worm. — The worst insect 
enemy to apple growing is the codling-moth, the larva of 
which is the apple worm. The markets of the cities do not 
want wormy apples. The insect which thus destroys the 
apple crop is shown in Fig. 132. The larva spins a nest or 
case in the crevices about the trunk of the tree where it lives 
over winter. The adult emerges in warm spring weather, 
and lays eggs in the blossom end of the little apple just after 
the petals fall from the tree (see Fig. 150 C). The larva eats 
its way into the fruit and feeds about the center. When 



INSECTS 



233 



fully fed, it crawls out and lets itself down to the ground by 
a silken thread. Later a second brood may appear, to attack 
the fall and winter varieties of apples, the eggs being laid 
on the outside of the half -grown fruits. 

The best remedies for the apple worm are poison sprays. 
These may be applied along with other sprays to prevent 
such diseases as apple-scab and apple-rust. Three pounds 
of arsenate of lead are mixed with fifty gallons of the other 




Fig. 132. — Codling-moth and its work: a, the injury done; b, place where 
egg was laid; e, larva; d, pupa; i cocoon; /, g adults. (From Smith's "Insect 
Friends and Enemies.") 

spray material and sprayed on the tree in the form of a fine 
mist just after the petals fall. The other spray material 
may be either hme-sulfur or Bordeaux mixture. The calyx 
cup of the apple should be open when the poison is applied. 
This condition is seen in Fig. 150 C, and the calyx after it has 
closed is shown in Fig, 150 D. 

The Curculio of Plums and Peaches. — This is the insect 
which makes certain stone-fruits wormy. The peach, plum, 
cherry, apricot, and others are often attacked by it. This 
insect is a true beetle, but it has the jaws at the end of a 



234 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

long snout or beak (Fig. 133). When the fruit is very small 
the adult beetle cuts a crescent-shaped opening in the skin 
with its jaws, and lays an egg in it. A grub-like larva hatches 
from this and burrows into the fruit, eating its way to the 
seed. This attack is likely to cause the peaches or plums to 
fall to the ground. When the larva is fully fed it leaves the 
fruit and forms its pupa in the ground. 

Apples, pears, and peaches are frequently bitten by the 
adult curculio and the wounds thus formed may make the 
fruit become deformed, as in Fig. 134. 




FiQ. 133. — Plura-curcuKo: a, larva; b, pupa; c, adult; d, beetle at work on a young 
plum, showing a crescent mark. (From Smith's "Economic Entomology.") 

It is difficult to poison the larva because it is inside the 
fruit. The adult insect may be poisoned by spraying while 
it is feeding upon buds and young leaves in the orchard 
before laying the eggs. Another time to poison the adult 
is when the fruit is being eaten to make a place for the eggs. 
Hogs, sheep, and poultry in the orchard, during the time the 
early fruits are falling, will destroy many of the curculio 
larvae. This will probably reduce the injury next season. 
Some fruit growers spread sheets or other receptacles under 
the trees and jar the trees to shake off the beetles before they 
lay their eggs. They lie quiet after being jarred off and are 
easily gathered up and destroyed. This should be done very 



I>iSECTS 235 

early in the morning and repeated every day or two for about 
two weeks just before the eggs are laid. 

Peach Tree Borer. — This insect does more injury through- 
out the plum and peach growing districts than any other 
insect. The adult is a beautiful moth, resembling a wasp in 

Fig. 134. Fig. 135. 




Fig. 134. — Peaches injured by curculio. 

Fig. 135.— Trunk of peach tree .showing a method of keeping away peach borers. 
(Experiment Station, N.J.) 

appearance. The eggs are laid during the summer upon the 
bark near the surface of the ground. The little borer or grub 
begins eating under the bark of the trunk and becomes 
nearly three-fourths of an inch long by fall. A gummy for- 
mation indicates the presence of the borer. The watchful 
grower will also find saw-dust-like borings escaping in some 



236 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

places near the surface of the ground. Very frequently the 
insects work in the sap wood just below the surface of the 
ground. 

Washing the trunks with lime-sulfur in the spring and 
summer is tried by many growers. It will probably protect 
the orchard from a large per cent of the borers. The more 
common and more certain remedy is to dig into the trees 
for borers in September or October and again in April or 
May. This is done by digging the dirt from the trunks of 




Fio. 136. — The flat-head apple-borer: a, larva; b, pupa; d, adult. 
(From Smith's "Economic Entomology.") 



the trees a few inches below the ground level. After a few 
days dig with a knife or wire for the borers under the bark 
wherever the gum or borings may be seen. 

Grafting wax may be rubbed over these wounds, and the 
dirt thrown back and heaped up around the tree. Heaping 
up the dirt will cause the next brood to work a little higher 
where they can be more easily discovered. 

Apple Tree Borers. — There are two kinds of beetles that 
attack the trunk of the apple tree and eat in the wood : the 
fiat-headed and the round-headed borer. Their work is 
similar, but the grubs and beetles are quite different, as 
shown in Figs. 136, 137. The fiat-headed borer attacks a 



INSECTS 



237 



great many trees besides apple trees. The round-headed 
borer is a serious enemy of the apple and quince and is 
sometimes found in pear trees. The grubs of these borers 
live in the tree trunk about three years and then change to 
the pupa stage a few weeks before emerging as adults. 

The best remedy is to keep the adults from laying their 
eggs on the trunks. This is done by tying tar paper or 
wire gauze about the trunks. The bottom of the material 
should be slightly in the ground and the top securely tied 
to prevent the beetles from crawling in. These protectors 






Fig. 137. — Round-head apple-borer: a, larva; 6, pupa; c, adult. (From Smith's 
"Economic Entomology.") 



should be renewed before the egg-laying season of June and 
July. Above these screens the trees should be whitewashed 
or sprayed with lime-sulfur. 

The San Jose Scale. — These insects were probably 
introduced into this country from China and were first 
found in America near the city of San Jose (Ho-sa'), California. 

This insect is probably the worst enemy of fruit trees. 
It has sucking mouth parts, and not only sucks the sap 
from leaves and fruit but also from the more tender 
branches. 

The breeding season of the insect lasts throughout the 
warm summer months, being checked only by frost. Large 



238 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

numbers of young are produced by a single insect, each one 
of which in turn begins to produce young in five or six weeks 
from birth. It is thus seen that where healthy insects of 
this species are not killed before the warm weather begins, 
the numbers may be so great by fall as to destroy or seriously 
threaten the trees of the vicinity. 

These scale insects thrive not only on orchard and nursery 
fruit trees, but are also found on hedges, some kinds of shade 
trees, and roadside shrubs. This makes it difficult to totally 
destroy the pest in any section where it has become firmly 
established. 

Remedies. — As this pest does not eat the tissues of the 
plant, poisonous sprays are not effective. The covering with 
which the insect naturally protects itself makes it a very 
difficult enemy to fight. A few good spray materials have 
now been found. Soluble oil is on the market under different 
trade names; in these the oil and water are caused to mix 
readily by use of certain chemicals. 

Lime-sulfvr sprays are very successful in combating the 
San Jose scale. One application is made in winter or early 
spring before the buds of the trees begin to swell. Another 
application is sometimes made in June or July when the 
young, tender insects are abundant. This summer spray is 
made very weak to avoid danger to the leaves. 

The early spring spraying and also the summer spraying 
will be very valuable as a means of combating several dis- 
eases such as peach scab and apple scab, and browTi rot of 
peaches. Thus the fighting of the San Jose scale is not, in 
itself, a very serious problem for the fruit grower. 

Exercise. — Insect Specimens. — Let pupils bring to school 
at any time insects which are injurious to plants in the home 
garden or elsewhere. The leaflets issued by the Bureau 
of Entomology at Washington will be helpful in the study 
of the insects thus collected. 

Exercise. — Preserving Specimens. — Insect specimens 



INSECTS 239 

may be killed by placing them in poison bottles for a few 
hours. These bottles should have wide mouths and good 
corks. A piece of cyanide of potassium, which is such a 
deadly poison that even breathing its fumes will kill insects 
and other animals, may be fastened in the bottle by pouring 
over it some wet plaster-of-Paris. A piece of the poison as 
large as a hickory-nut is enough for a four-ounce bottle. Let 
the plaster dry and then cork up the bottle. After insects 
have been killed they may be pinned into a cigar box, in the 
bottom of which has been fastened a sheet of thick corru- 




Fig. 138. — A caterpillar-hunting ground beetle and its larva. (From Smith's 
"Insect Friends and Enemies.") 

gated paste-board. A good way of preserving large butter- 
flies, moth?, and other large insects is shown in Fig. 124 B. 
Beneficial Insects. — Not all insects are harmful. There 
are indeed a great many groups that are beneficial in one way 
or another. The silk worm produces a product worth many 
millions of dollars annually in the commerce of the world 
Honey bees store large quantities of honey used as human 
food, and also carry pollen from blossom to blossom, thus 
increasing the crops of fruit. The ground beetle (Fig. 138), 
tiger beetle, and some other insects prey upon other injurious 
insects and thus act as a balance in Nature's forces for the 
control of the enemies of man. The spotted lady-beetle (Fig. 
139) destroys many thousands of the San Jose scale insects. 



240 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



There are certain parasitic insects living on the more 
injurious forms and this aids materially in the control of 
insect pests. (See Figs. 140, 141.) 

Exercise. — Parasites of Insects. — In the breeding cages 
or in the boxes where cocoons are kept, watch carefully for 
the indications of parasites. Some of them may be similar 
to one or more figures in this chapter. 

Toads as Insect Destroyers. — The common toad, found 
in the garden, lives almost entirely upon insects. He eats 
enormous numbers, most of which are of the harmful kinds. 




Fig. 139. — 15-si>otted lady-beetle: a, lan-a; b, pupa; d-(j, adult \-arieties. (From 
Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 

Toads have no harmful habits. They should be protected 
because of the good they do. A single full-gro\m toad will 
do several dollars' worth of good in a garden each season. 



BIRDS AND THEIR VALUE TO AGRICULTURE. 

Birds are one of the most effective means of retaining the 
so-called "balance in Nature." That is, it may be seen that 
in certain seasons, or in places where insects are unusually 
destructive, more ])irds than usual will be found, busily eat- 
ing up the insects. Or if the weed crop is very abundant the 



INSECTS 



241 



birds will congregate in larger numbers to feast upon the 
seeds. 

Food Habits of Birds. — Through the Biological Survey 
of the United States Department of Agriculture, the food 
habits of very many species of birds have been studied and 
published, so that farmers, and everyone else for that mat- 
ter, may know exactl}^ to what extent we are indebted to the 




Fig. 140. — Digger-wasp carrying a cicada to its home. 

Fig. 141. — Sphinx caterpillar covered with cocoons of parasites. (From Smith' 

"Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



birds for their help in keeping down the numbers of destruc- 
tive insects and the weed pests that would soon literally take 
the country, were it not for the activities of the birds. 

Through the studies made in the Biological Survey, 
which have covered a long period of years, it has been deter- 
mined that very few species of birds can actually be called 
harmful to the interests of man. 

Harmful Birds. — Three hawks — Cooper's hawk, the 
sharpshinned hawk, and the goshawk — are the three that 
commit the most depredations against chicken yards, and 



242 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

kill many other useful birds. These three should be learned 
and killed on sight. 

Other Hawks, including the red tailed hawk, red shoul- 
dered hawk, marsh hawk, Mississippi kite, Swainson's hawk, 
American rough-legged hawk, sparrow hawk and broad 
winged hawk, are all very useful, as their diet consists mainly 
of rats, mice, and other small creatures that are very destruc- 
tive to grain crops. Owls are also included in this list with 
the useful hawks. It is said that hawks work by day and 
owls by night, so that these birds work for the farmer twenty- 
four hours every day. Nothing could be more friendly and 
helpful than that. Farmers in turn can do no less than 
protect these birds. 

Some Robin Arithmetic. — The following paragraphs are 
quoted from William Rittenhouse: "A pair of robins eat 
two worms or insects every minute, all summer long, and 
also raise one or two broods of young robins to do the same. 

"We count that the robin starts to look for the early 
worm at five o'clock in the morning and keeps up his search 
until five in the afternoon, that makes twelve hours, or seven 
hundred and twenty minutes — 1,440 worms a day for the 
pair of birds. For at least four months the robins stay with 
us. Robins live about fifteen summers if their enemies — 
usually men or boys with guns — let them alone to do their 
work. So in one lifetime a pair of robins could destroy 2,592- 
000 bugs and worms. 

"Worms and insects when not interfered with, increase 
at a frightful rate. One pair of potato bugs, if unmolested, 
will increase to 55,000,000 in a single season. But one bird 
in a minute, can gobble up one of these parent bugs, and thus 
prevent the 55,000,000 from ever existing. To keep down 
insect life is the robin's great occupation, and its foraging 
begins early in the spring. Thus it destroys the early bugs 
which, if let alone, would lay countless eggs and prepare 
endless trouble for the farmer later on. 



INSECTS 243 

"A pair of robins are the farmer's private detectives. 
They guard his trees twelve hours a day. Yet some farmers 
object because robins eat cherries. It would pay every 
farmer to plant a group of cherry trees for the robins, in order 
to gain a band of industrious helpers all summer." 

It is not alone the robins that are valuable to agricultural 
interests. The following is a partial list of birds that are 
friends to man: 

All sparrows except the English; all swallows; siskin; kill- 
deer; flicker; nighthawk; grackle; pheasant; quail; grosbeak; 
bluebird; nut-hatch; blue jay; thrushes; wren; catbird; war- 
bler; meadow lark; blackbirds; oriole; cardinal; mockingbird; 
chickadee; all woodpeckers, and many more. 

What Birds Eat.— United States Farmers' Bulletm 755, 
"Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation 
to Agriculture," gives a list of 66 birds which are known 
enemies of the cotton boll-weevil. It also says that 128 kinds 
of birds eat wireworms, an enemy of com. 55 species de- 
stroy billbugs, another com pest; 43 kinds feed upon army 
worms ; 24 kinds eat chinch bugs ; 25 kinds are especially fond 
of the large clover leaf hoppers. The small clover leaf wee- 
vils furnish food for 74 species of birds. And so on through 
the long list of insect enemies of farmers, gardeners and fruit 
raisers. 

It is estimated that insects damage and destroy about 
$700,000,000 of crops annually in the United States. Prob- 
ably no one has estimated or could estimate the saving to 
agriculture by birds feeding on insects and weed seeds. 

Amount of Seeds Eaten. — If those birds which eat 
mainly weed seeds, each consume one-half ounce of seeds 
daily, it is easily estimated that in a large agricultural State, 
such as Illinois or Iowa, the annual food supply of these 
birds would amount to hundreds of tons of weed seeds. 

Methods of Encouraging Birds. — Plant shrubbery for 
nesting places. Dense patches of brambles make good hid- 



244 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ing places, where birds may be safe from stray cats and dogs. 
Plant berry-producing shrubs and vines for food. Spice 
bush, barberry, mulberry, blackberry, hackberry, and thorn- 
apple are good. Also many others. 

Make bird houses out of tin cans or boxes and place 
them where the birds will not be afraid to nest in them. Pro- 
tect the trees in which nests are found, with sticky flypaper 
to keep off stray cats. 

Feed the birds in winter and furnish them drinking places 
in summer. 

Bird Enemies. — Probably the worst enemies of birds 
are stray cats, bird dogs, hunters, and thoughtless boys. 
The cats should be killed. The dogs should either be kept 
tied or killed. The boys should be taught to love and pro- 
tect the birds instead of robbing their nests and shooting the 
birds. Hunters should be controlled by better laws. 

Laws protecting birds should be more stringent. When 
farmers become fully aroused to the importance of birds in 
relation to agricultural interests, they will see to it that hunt- 
ing is prohibited, and that all seasons are "closed" for all 
game birds. They should be protected and encouraged in 
every way possible, as they are among the farmer's best 
friends and are one of the greatest assets to the successful 
raising of crops. 

Among the worst enemies of birds are bird dogs. They 
are bred for hunting birds and do it instinctively, so cannot 
be blamed. The people who keep them and allow them to 
run at large are the ones at fault. They are also the ones 
who suffer most, perhaps, as a dog will naturally roam about 
his master's place first, and destroy the nests of the birds 
which he can reach. 

The following birds nest on, or near, the ground: bobo- 
link; meadow lark; chewink; quail; pheasant; prairie chicken; 
Harris sparrow; lark sparrow; white throated sparrow; tree 
sparrow; red winged blackbird, and veery. Their nests are 



INSECTS 245 

very liable to be broken up by prowling bird dogs, or worth- 
less curs, which eat the eggs. 

Hunters often shoot useful birds merely for the sake of 
killing something. Of course all the game birds which are 
bagged by hunters are a direct loss to the farmers, as they 
have just that many less friends who would help them in 
destroying insect and weed enemies. 

Exercise. — Count the number of cats in your school 
district. Estimate the loss to the farmers if each cat destroys 
five nests each year for five years. 

Let each pupil make a bird house and put it up in the 
school yard or at home. 

Report on watering places for birds in the locality, either 
natural or artificial. Suggest schemes for watering the birds. 

Have pupils observe the habits of birds and report on 
such things as feeding, watering, nest building materials, and 
nesting locations. 

One bird dog was known to have destroyed 21 quails' 
nests on one farm in one season. If each nest averaged 15 eggs, 
how large a flock of quails were destroyed by that one worth- 
less dog? Each quail would have eaten at least 100 potato 
bugs and at least that number of many other kinds of insects 
in one day. Figure out how many insects these quails 
might have destroyed in one season, if they had all lived. 
Which do you think would have been the most valuable to 
the farmer, the quails or the dog? 

REVIEW. 

1. Describe the structure of insects, as to body, wings, legs, and 
parts on the head. 

2. Tell of the two kinds of mouth parts of insects. 

3. Why cannot iasects that have sucking mouth parts be poisoned? 
How are they usually controlled? 

4. Tell what you can about the skeleton of an insect. 
.5. Tell how insects grow. 

6. Tell what -s meant by the terms complete change and incom- 
plete change in the development of insects. 

7. Name the four stages in the life of insects having complete 
change. 



246 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

8. Tell what you can about the larval stage. 

9. Tell what you can about the pupal stage. 

10. To what forms of larva^ do these terms apply : caterpillar, grub, 
maggot, wriggler, nymph? 

11. Tell how mosquitoes develop malaria and impart it to man. 

12. Tell two differences between malarial mosquitoes and others. 

13. Tell of three more ways of preventing the spread of hiunan 
diseases by mosquitoes. 

14. Tell how mosquito wrigglers breathe. 

15. Describe the life development of the house fly. 

16. How do flies spread typhoid and other human diseases? 

17. What are the remedies to be used against the fly? 

18. Tell how to prevent damage from clothes moths. 

19. Describe the damage done by grain moths. 

20. In what ways are chinch bugs injurious? 

21. What are the different means of control? 

22. How are potato beetles controlled? 

23. Describe the life and work of the coddling-moth. 

24. Tell at just what time to spray to fight the spring brood. Why? 

25. What injury is done by the curcuho beetles? 

26. What are some of the ways of fighting it? 

27. Tell how the peach tree borer may be found. 

28. What are the remedies for this insect? 

29. Name two kinds of apiJe tree borers and tell what harm they do. 

30. Why is it so difficult to control the San Jose scale? 

31. What two materials are used to spray the scale? When used? 

32. Name some groups of beneficial insects and tell of their benefits. 

33. How do birds help farmers? 

34. How have we learned what birds are our friends? 

35. What three birds are actually harmful? Why? 

36. What do hawks and owls eat? 

37. What do most other birds eat? 

38. "What birds are most common in your locality? 

39. What birds, if any, remain over winter? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 127, Important Insecticides; 
543, Common White Grubs; 650 and 723, Scale insects; 657. Chinch 
Bug; 662, Apple Tent Caterpillar; 668, Vine Borer; 675, Apple Tree 
Borer; 691, Grasshoppers; 701, Bagworm; 708, Leopard moth; 739, 
Cutworms; 725, 733, on Wireworms; 721, Rose Chafer; 731, Army 
Worm; 74^ Alfalfa Weevil. On household pests: 626, 627, 658, 659, 
679,681. 683, 699, and 740; 513, 755, Birds; 766, Cabbage Worm. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING. 
Diseases of Plants. — There are many diseases which 
attack plants grown in field, garden and orchard. These are 
mainly: (1) Those produced by fungous gro\vi^h of minute 
plants, on tissues of useful plants, examples of which are rust 
on leaves and smut on grain. (2) Those produced ]:)y bacteria. 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 247 

as in the case of pear blight and peach j^ellows. (3) Those 
due to poor drainage or poor soil or unfavorable climate; 
these would not be contagious. 

Prevention of Plant Diseases. — The spores or organisms 
from which the fungous diseases develop may be killed by 
special spray materials. These should be killed before they 
get into the leaves or other parts of the plants. Spraying is 
a means of preventing disease rather than curing it. The 
spray materials are made just strong enough to kill the dis- 
ease germs and weak enough not to harm the useful plants 
that are sprayed. (See Appendix for formulas of spray 
mixtures.) 

Exercise. — Studying Plant Diseases. — Specimens of va- 
rious diseases found on fruits, vegetables, trees, and other 
plants may be brought to school. Let the pupil name all 
of these possible. If there are any that seem to be serious 
diseases in the neighborhood at the time they may be re- 
ported or specimens sent to the State Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station of the State. Ask that Station for special 
bulletins telling how to control the particular disease. 

Brown Rot of Peaches. — This disease causes decay of 
the fruit and the l)lighting of the twigs of peaches, plums, 
and cherries. Fig. 142 shows the rot on peaches. The trouble 
Avith peaches is confined almost exclusively to the early varie- 
ties. After the rotted fruits have become dry they cling to 
the trees, and thus hold the spores over until the next year. 
Remove all such dried fruits from the trees in the winter. The 
sprayings made to control San Jose scale will help to keep 
this disease in check. 

Peach Scab or Black Spot. — This disease gives the fruit a 
soot}^ appearance, because of the presence of grayish black 
spots. The scab may become so bad as to cause the fruits 
to crack open. It is thought that this disease is worse 
in orchards where the air-drainage or ventilation is poor. 
Spray with the self-boiled lime-sulfur mixture, given in the 
17 



248 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Appendix as the 8 — 8 — 50 formula, just after the blossom 
calyx is shed from the young fruits (Fig. 143). Repeat this 
spray once or twice at intervals of three weeks. 

Peach Leaf Curl. — In early spring, when this disease 
occurs, the leaves become thickened, curled, and distorted 
(Fig. 144). The diseased leaves turn brown and fall off. 
The loss of leaves from this cause may be very severe in the 
worst cases. The spraying for scale insects will usually 
keep the leaf curl within control. 




FiQ. 142. — Brown-rot disease of the peach. Fresh fruit above, last year's fruit 
clinging to twigs. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



Peach Yellows. — The exact cause of this disease is not 
yet definitely knowTi, although a great deal of study has 
been given to it. The real cause may be due to some form 
of bacteria, as the disease is very contagious in the peach 
orchard. In the earlier stages of the disease the leaves on 
some shoots are very abundant and small. Fig. 145 shows 
the appearance in spring. Wiry shoots are sent out from 
the main branches. The leaves may even become yellowish- 
green in color, and quite sticky. In advanced stages of 
yellows the fruit appears ripe much ahead of its time; the 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



249 



skin and flesh are spotted and blotched with red, the flavor 
being bitter or insipid. The best remedy is to cut out the 
diseased tree as soon as detected, and burn it. Disinfect 
instruments used to help prevent spread to healthy trees. 

Little=Peach. — This disease of the peach is somewhat 
like yellows, the leaves becoming yellowish-green and drop- 
ping as in yellows. But there is one important difference. 
Instead of appearing ripe too 
early, the fruits remain very small 
and are green much too long. 
(See Fig. 146.) The diseased 
trees should be burned as in the 
case of yellows. 

Apple Scab. — This disease of 
the apple is very bad in nearly 
all regions where the crop is 
grown for market. It is very 
similar to the scab disease found 
on pears. It attacks both leaves 
and fruit. This disease appears at 
blossom time and soon after, caus- 
ing large numbers of the small 
apples to drop from the tree. 
The fruits that cling on may be- 
come affected and will be small, 
irregular, rough, and blotched. 
Irregular, roughened, brown 
spots, more or less running together, are formed on the sur- 
face of the apple. The roughened or scabby area may cover 
all one side of the apple and even cause it to crack. It is from 
this scabby appearance that the disease takes its common 
name. The disease on the leaves causes sooty spots on the 
under side. Later these leaves become yellow and drop from 
the tree, in severe cases taking most of the leaves from 
the tree. 




Fig. 143. — Time for fir>t sum- 
mer spray on peach and plum, as 
the calyx is being shed from young 
fruit. (.Experiment Station, N.J.) 



250 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



This disease is prevented by spraying in early spring 
before the buds swell, with lime-sulfur preparation. This 
is repeated with a weaker solution just before the blossom 
buds open, and again just after the petals of the blossoms 
fall to the ground. 




Fig. 144. 



-Leaf-curl disease. Healthy twig on right, the disease prevented by 
lime-sulfur spray. (Experiment Station, N. J. ) 



Exercise. — Studying Apple Scab. — Have some one bring 
to school a few samples of scabby apples from the grocery 
store or home orchard. The class should all become familiar 
with the ways in which the fruit is affected by the scab. 

Apple Rust. — Leaves attacked by apple rust appear as 
though covered in blotches by a heavy coat of iron rust. The 
whole under surface may present a rusty appearance (Fig. 
147). The trouble may spread to tender twigs and even to 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



251 



the fruits in some cases. The life of this disease is interesting, 
and a knowledge of it leads to the proper remedy. 

The apple rust fungus lives a portion of its life upon the 
apple tree or the quince tree, as already described, but it 
appears in a very different form upon red cedar trees that 
may be growing near the orchard. The growth on the cedar 
tree is popularly known as cedar apple. These cedar apples 
in spring appear as large masses of yellow or orange-colored 




Fig. 145. — Twigs of peach in sprinn-timo. Two at right affected with "yellows, 
liealthy twigs at left. iExperiment Station, N. J.) 



jelly clinging to the branches of the cedar tree; in winter they 
are small, bi'own or purple galls. These enlarge next spring. 
It is from these cedar apples that the disease spreads to the 
orchard. 

If this disease is very prevalent in the orchard, it may be 
best to remove the cedar trees near the orchard. This would 
greatly check or stamp out the disease. Spraying as for 
apple scab will perhaps aid a little in checking the apple rust, 
but is not a complete remedy. 



252 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Exercise. — Cedar Apples. — In the fall or -wdnter stu- 
dents may find specimens of the winter form of the cedar 
apple, above described, on the cedar trees near apple orchards. 
If these are found use the specimens to illustrate the lesson 
on apple disease. 

Potato Scab. — On the surface of Irish potatoes in the 
winter time may be found scabby-looking spots or areas 
caused by the potato scab fungus. The disease when very 
bad produces deep depressions or pits in the surface of the 




Fig. 146. — Disease called "little-peach." Healthy fruit above, 
(Experiment Station, N. J.) 

tubers. The crop yield may be greatly reduced by the 
attacks of this disease. The spread of the disease may be in 
several ways: 

1. The germs of potato scab will grow more rapidly 
when there has been a heavy application of fresh stable 
manure to the field just before the potatoes are planted. It 
is better to manure the field one year in advance if possible, 
or to use some well-rotted manure. 

2. When lime is applied to the soil the disease will likely 
be worse on the potato crop. Green manure plowed under 
in preparing the field for potatoes will help to counteract 
this action of the lime. 

3. Soils from which a very scabby crop of potatoes has 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



253 



been harvested recently will probably cause the next crop 
to be diseased in like manner. Rotation of crops is, therefore, 
advisable. Do not use beets and other root crops in this 
rotation, as the scab disease also attacks them. 

4. Seed potatoes are usually more or less scabby or have 
the germs of the disease upon them. If these are planted 
without treatment the disease will likely be introduced into 
the soil. 

The treatment of seed potatoes to prevent the planting of 
scab disease is now a very cheap and simple process. The 




Fig. 147. — Apple rust on leaf and twig. 



seed potatoes are soaked for two hours in a solution of forma- 
lin. This solution is made by mixing one pint of the strong- 
est formalin in thirty-two gallons of water. This kills the 
disease germs but does no harm to the potatoes. The liquid 
may be used for several sacks of potatoes. 

Exercise. — Showing Potato Scab. — Specimens of Irish 
potatoes having the scab disease should be brought to school 
and shown to all the students. 

Grain Smut. — In fields of grain, when it is in head, may 
be often seen a black powder which clings to the husks of 
the grain (Fig. 148). This black powder is the fruit of a 
disease growing inside of the grain stalks. The disease is 



254 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



called grain smut, for it causes the black appearance, like 

stove soot, on the heads of grain. Oats and barley are often 

very badly injured by this disease. 

Any farmer can prevent his grain from having the disease 

by a very simple and cheap process. The seed should be 

treated in a liquid before it 
is planted. The liquid used 
is formalin and water. If 
into a common barrel are 
poured twenty gallons of 
water and then one half- 
pint of strong formalin is 
thoroughly mixed with it, 
the liquid will be ready for 
use. The seed grain is placed 
in a loose sack and then 
lowered into the barrel of 
liquid; after about ten min- 
utes all of the black smut or 
spores in the seed will be 
killed. The sack is then 
raised up and allowed to 
drain for a few minutes. 
The wet seed is then spread 
out to dry before it is 
planted. This drying may 
be done on a clean barn 
floor, in a w^agon-box, or on 
a cloth stack-coYcr spread 

on the ground. The seed should be spread out thin enough 

so that it will dry before it begins to sprout. 

The same liquid may be used for many sacks of seed, 

so that the cost of treating enough seed for a large field is 

not great. 

Exercise. — Treating Oats for Smut.— It is suggested that 




Fig. 148 



Loose smut of oats mounted 
on cotton under glass. (A. E.) 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



255 



the pupils bring some oats in a sack, and treat them in a pail 
of water with a little formalin in it. 

Exercise. — Showing Grain Smut. — Perhaps sample heads 
of diseased grain can be brought to school. If so, preserve 
them as shown in Fig. 148. Some one should bring samples 
of corn smut disease to show to the class. Corn smut is not 
prevented by the formalin treatment. 

Exercise. — Treating Seed Potatoes. — The pupils may- 
bring a pail and a few potatoes from home. A half-ounce 
(four teaspoonfuls) of formalin should be added to one gallon 




Fig. 149 



-Spraying orchard tins m i - 

pump. (Kxperiniciit Statimi, N . 



■J.) 



of water. Soak the potatoes in this mixture for two hours. 
Urge the pupils to tell of the method at their homes. 

Spraying. — Under ordinary conditions a bearing apple 
orchard should be sprayed at least three times each spring 
and perhaps once in summer. 

The first spraying is to be made before the buds swell in 
very early spring (Fig. 149). This is to prevent scab and 
similar diseases and to kill the San Jose scale insects. For 
this spraying it is well to use either soluble oil at the rate of 
one gallon of the oil to fifteen gallons of water, or to use the 



256 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



lime-sulfur solution. Commercial concentrated lime-sulfur 
is diluted at the rate of one gallon to nine of water. 

The second spraying is made just before the blossom opens 




(.til 



Spray for 



Fig. 150. — A. Too soon to spray for apple worm or codlinc 
apple scab at tliis stage or before. 

B. Apples in full bloom. Spraying now would poison the honey bees. 

C. Petals just fallen; just the right time to spray for apple worm. Poison 
will fall in the calyx cup of the blossom and kill the worm as soon as hatched. 

D. Too late to spray for apple worm. The calj'x is closed and apples turned 
down. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



(Fig. 150, A). It is to control apple scab disease and to kill all 
leaf-eating insects. This time use one and one-half gallons 
of strong lime-sulfur solution and three pounds of arsenate 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 257 

of lead to fifty gallons of water. This will accomplish the 
two purposes at the same time. 

The third spring spraying is made just after the petals 
fall from the blossoms. Its chief purpose is to control the 
codling-moth. It also aids in preventing the trouble from 
apple scab. As there are two purposes, use the combined 
sprays as in the second spring spraying. Study Figs. 150 A, 
B, C, D together. 

For the control of codling-moth on fall and winter varie- 
ties of apples, a midsummer spraying is advisable. For this 




FiQ. 151. — Summer sprasdng by school students. (Agricultural Education.) 

use two pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water. 

Principles of Spraying. — Always select, if possible, a 
bright clear day without much wind for all kinds of spraying. 

Do the work carefully and thoroughly. Let all parts of 
th« plants be touched with the spray materials. 

Use special nozzles which throw the materials into fine 
mists. Learn of the latest and best nozzles and spraying 
apparatus by writing to the Agricultural Experiment Station 
of the State. Always consider what are the special purposes 
of the particular spraying, and use the proper materials for 
those purposes. 



258 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

An insecticide is to be used for insects, and a fungicide 
used for the plant diseases. These may be combined into one 
spray material. 

Weaker sprays are necessary on plants when the leaves 
are on; stronger sprays when the trees are dormant. 

Lime-sulfur is used both as a winter spray and as a sum- 
mer spray, but the strength must be made to suit the condi- 
tion of the trees or other plants. It is a fungicide and also a 
special insecticide for the control of scale insects. 

Soluble oils are for winter use only and are especially for 
scale insects. 

Bordeaux mixture alone is a fungicide and, in different 
strengths, may be used either when the trees are dormant or 
when in leaf. 

Paris green and arsenate of lead are two of the most com- 
mon insect poison materials. They may be used in combi- 
nation with lime-sulfur and also with Bordeaux mixture. 
(See spray formulas in the Appendix.) 

REVIEW. 

1. What are the three main causes of plant diseases? 

2. Name two fungous diseases of the apple. 

3. Name five diseases of the peach. 

4. Describe peach yellows and tell of the best remedy. 

5. Tell how to prevent apple scab. 

6. Tell of the relation of cedar apples to the rust disease of apples. 

7. Give four causes of potato scab and the remedy for each. 

8. Describe the treatment of seed potatoes to prevent the planting 
of scab disease. 

9. Describe the treatment of oats to prevent smut disease. 

10. Give the objects for each of the three spring sprayings of apple 
trees. 

11. Give the material to use at each time. 

12. Give all the principles of spraying that you can. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 345, Some Common Disin- 
fectants; 488, Diseases of Cabbage, Etc.; 507, Gram Smuts; 648, Root 
Knot; 742, White Pine Blister Rust. 



PART II. 
ANIMAL PRODUCTION 



CHAPTER XXII. 
IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS. 

In man's efforts to secure for his use the best types of 
live stock or farm animals he has produced the various breeds 
of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry. He has intelli- 
gently selected those animals which showed a tendency to 
produce the desired qualities. The correct principles of 
breeding have been applied, somewhat as an art and some- 
times also as a science. It is important that we have animals 
suited to a definite purpose, rather than for several or all 
purposes. Men want horses for draft and for speed; some 
cows for milk, others for beef; some sheep for wool, others 
for mutton; some swine for bacon and lean meat, others for 
lard; some hens for eggs, others for meat. 

A Breed. — A group of animals which have special charac- 
teristics of habit, color, and form is called a breed. They have 
a tendency to transmit such characteristics without much 
change to their offspring. The best breed to keep is always 
the one best suited to the desired purpose. There are so many 
breeds that one may be chosen for each particular need. 

Laws of Breeding. — There are several laws of nature 
which govern in a large measure the maintenance of good 
breeds and the improvement of live stock. 

The law of heredity is one of these. It means that animals 
inherit from their ancestors certain forms, characteristics, 
qualities, habits, and tendencies. These may be either desir- 
able or undesirable and are frequently both. That "like 
produces like" is as true with animals as with plants. If 

259 



260 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

this law were an absolute one, man would find it impossible 
to make any improvements in his animals by careful selection. 

Variation among farm animals is a natural tendency for 
them to differ from each other and from their parents. No 
two calves in the barn are alike. The pigs in a litter may look 
alike when young, but the attendant can soon point out 
differences. This tendency to vary allows stockmen to select 
the desired types and produce, in time, the animals desired 
for special purposes. 

Exercise. — Variation Among Animals. — Let pupils tell 
of variations in color or other marked characters among 
pure-bred stock such as cattle, poultry, or swine. Care 
should be used to bring out the law of variation. 

Reversion is the tendency for young animals to exhibit 
characters of distant ancestors, which their own parents 
did not possess. 

Sometimes there are characters present in certain indi- 
vidual animals which are not like any of the animals of the 
breed. Such cases are called mutations or sports. Such very 
odd or different characters are not always transmitted by 
animals to their offspring. When such new characters are 
given to the offspring they may become fixed and give rise 
to a new line or strain of animals in a breed. The hornless 
or polled Shorthorn cattle and the polled Hereford cattle 
were first started from sports. Now the hornless character 
of those strains has become fixed. The groups may even be 
considered as distinct breeds. 

Pure=Bred Animals. — These are animals which have been 
bred along a certain line or within the bounds of the breed 
for many generations. The vulgar term full-blood should 
not be used to express purity of blood in an animal. The 
term thoroughbred is also incorrectly used in this connection. 
This name belongs to a breed of race-horses which originated 
in England. 

Grades are animals which are not pure bred but are part 



IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 261 

native. A high grade animal is one which is more than half 
pure bred. Native stock are those in which there is no certain, 
traceable blood of any special breed. They may be a mixture 
of several breeds. They are often called " Scrubs." 

Cross-bred animals are the result of crossing two pure- 
bred animals of different breeds, as a Holstein- Jersey cross 
in cattle, or a Plymouth Rock-Cochin cross in poultry. 

Pedigrees. — These are statements of the lineage or ances- 
tors of animals. Records are kept of all the animals of 
the pure breeds, if the owners care to register them. Owners 
of stock of a certain breed form an Association, the officers 
of which establish herd books in which records are kept of 
the animals and their offspring owned by the members. 
(See the sample Holstein pedigree in the Appendix.) 

Exercise. ^ — Stock Pedigrees. — Some pupils in the school 
may be able to bring to the teacher a written or printed 
pedigree of farm animals owned by some one in the neighbor- 
hood. The value of such a complete record may then be 
made clear to the class, because of its local application. 

Bad Effects of Crossing. — It is far too common a practice 
for farmers to cross the stock of two breeds. Where a herd 
is graded up toward one breed, as Jerseys, they are then 
crossed with Holsteins or Shorthorns, the hope being to 
increase the quantity of milk. The result is usually a dis- 
appointment and the practice is a bad one. When there are so 
many good breeds of each kind of farm animals it is unwise to 
try to blend them by doing such crossing. Instead of a 
blending effect, the stockman often gets the extreme charac- 
teristics emphasized by close contrast in one individual. 
For example, the head, hairy feet and legs, and large hoofs of 
the Clydesdale are sometimes found on the slender body of 
a race-horse. The more extreme the crosses or the greater 
the difference in type between the breeds used in the cross, 
the greater will be the number of failures. The successful 
crosses are few. Occasionally the bad effects of a cross do 



262 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

not show until the second generation. Then the disappoint- 
ment of the owner is emphasized, and the time lost in his 
failure is greater. 

Keeping Pure Breeds. — All stock breeders should keep 
pure-bred animals. Each breed has been produced because 
the animals are the best for some particular purpose. The 
breeder should determine what his purpose is and then choose 
the proper pure breed for that purpose. The animals of that 
breed are sure to be more satisfactory than any cross breeds 
or grades. Pure-bred animals have fixed characteristics 
and may be expected to come true to type. The superior 
qualities of the parents will be found in the offspring. The 
profit derived from pure-bred animals is usually much greater 
than from natives or from grades. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is meant by special purpose animals? Give examples. 

2. How have these been developed ? 

3. What is meant by a breed ? Which is always the best one ? 

4. What is heredity ? What is variation ? 

5. What benefits arise from the law of variation ? 

6. What is meant by reversion ? 

7. What are mutations or sports ? What use is made of them in 
formmg new breeds ? 

8. Define grades and natives. 

9. What is a pedigree ? 

10. Why should farmers not cross the oure breeds of farm animals ? 

11. Give reasons for breeders keeping pure-bred animals instead 
of native stock, or scrubs. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
HORSES. 



There were no horses in America at the time of the dis- 
covery by Columbus. All horses that are now found here 
are imported or are offspring of imported stock. Some horses 
were brought by Columbus on his second voyage, others were 
brought by Cortez, by DeSoto, and by French, Dutch, and 
English settlers. The wild ponies of the Southwest, called 



HORSES 263 

Texas ponies, are probably descendants of horses abandoned 
by DeSoto. 

Most of the pure breeds of horses found here at the 
present time have originated in the Old World; but America 
has established a distinct breed of saddle horses and trotters, 
and a carriage breed is being developed. 

Types of Horses. — There are several types of horses: 
(1) Those for heavy work are called the draft type. (2) Those 
of light build, for quick action, are called the light horse type. 
(3) There are many that would not fall into either of these 
two extreme types, but would be somewhat intermediate 
between them. Such horses may be grouped into a third 
type, sometimes called dual-purpose or general-purpose 
horses. The descriptive points of the draft horse and the 
light horse are given in the score cards at the end of this 
chapter. 

Pure Breeds of Horses. — The pure breeds of horses may 
be grouped as follows: draft breeds, coach breeds, light 
breeds, and pony breeds. The market types of horses, 
whether they be pure-bred or not, may be classified as draft, 
coach, roadster, saddle, and pony. 

The draft breeds are all large, heavy horses, ranging in 
weight from thirteen hundred to two thousand pounds. 
They are well built for heavy teaming. The leading breeds 
of the draft group are Clydesdale, Percheron, English Shire, 
Suffolk Punch, and Belgian. 

Coach Horses. — The heavy carriage or coach breeds 
Include the large, active, stylish coach horses, such as the 
Hackney, German and French coach, the Cleveland Bay 
or Yorkshire coach. 

Light horse breeds include the Thoroughbred, the Ameri- 
can trotting horse, and the American saddle horse 

Po7iy breeds are the Welsh, the Shetland, and Exmoor. 
These differ considerably in size, habits, and other special 
characters. Besides these pony breeds there are severaJ 
18 



264 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



pony types which have not been kept pure in their breeding. 
Among these may be mentioned the broncho of the Western 
plains, the Indian pony of the Northwest, and the Mexican 
or In(Uan mustang of the Southwest. 

Percherons (Fig. 152), — This is a French breed of draft 
horses, identical with or nearly the same as the French and 
the Norman draft horses. Percherons are gray or black when 




Fig. 152. — Black Percherons in harness. Large, gentle draft horses; well 
suited to use on farms. 



young, becoming lighter in color with age. The dark colors 
are preferred, and are more common. Dapple grays of this 
breed are much admired. The body is compact, short, and 
thick; the head is of moderate size; the legs are rather short 
and very muscular, with short hair. The feet are smaller 
than in the Clydes. Percherons are very easily managed and 
become very gentle. Little, if any, "breaking" is necessary. 
They are much used on the farms of the middle West and 



HORSES 



265 



Northwest. Grades of this breed are used in great numbers 
in city dray work in America. 

Clydesdales. — This (Fig. 153) heavy draft breed dates 
back to its origin in Scotland two hundred years ago. The 
general color is bay or brown, but sorrels and blacks may be 
found among the Clydes. Usually there are some white 
markings on the legs and a strip of white in the face. The 




Fia. lo3. — Pure-bred Clydesdale horse. Heavy draft type. (U. S. D. A.) 



form of the body is long, smooth, and symmetrical. The 
height is often sixteen or seventeen hands. (Four inches is 
called a hand by horsemen.) The thick, stout legs are heavily 
fringed below the knees and hocks with long, shaggy hair. 
The Clydes are well suited for heavy farm work, because of 
their strength, rapid walking gait, and gentle disposition. 

English Shires. — There are no very marked differences 
between the Scotch Clydesdale and the English Shire horses. 



266 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

The colors and markings and the form are much the same 
in the two breeds. The EngHsh Shire is heavier, more com- 
pact and the legs shorter. They are not so common in 
America as their Scotch ancestors. 

Suffolk Punch. — This is another English breed of draft 
horses. The color is chestnut. They are rotund in build 
and are seldom so large and heavy as the Percherons. The 
shoulders, neck and legs are of the true draft tj'pe. As yet 
this is not a common breed in America. 




FiQ. 154. — Fancy driving team, French coach breed. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 

Belgian Horse. — This is probably the heaviest of our 
draft breeds. The body is more blocky, the breast wider, 
and the neck thicker than in either the Percherons or the 
Clydesdales. The color is roan, brown or bay. The breed 
has not come into very popular use in America. 

Coach Horses Described. — The Cleveland Bay is the 
oldest or most distinctive breed among the coach horses. 
The color is bay; feet and legs dark, mane and tail black. 
They are tall, being sixteen to seventeen hands; weight 1100 
to 1300 pounds. 

The coach or cab horses used in cities are large, active, 
and stylish, and are highly valued for heavy harness duty 
and for general driving. They are required to haul medium 



HORSES 



267 



loads and to travel at a moderate trot. The French coach 
(Fig. 154), the German coach, and the Hackney all serve 
these purposes very well. The German coach horses are 
less used in America than the others, probably because of 
their greater weight. The French coach is bay, chestnut or 
black ; and the German coach brown, bay or black. 




Fig. 155. — Champiuu llackuey stalliuii "Oxford." 



The Hackney (Fig. 155) is used to grade up the native 
horses for coach purposes. He is much liked because of his 
striking and pleasing appearance and good temper. His ac- 
tion is very good, though not so quick as the trotter. The color 
is brown, chestnut, roan or gray, with some white markings. 

Thoroughbred. — The English race horse or Thoroughbred 
is the oldest of all pure breeds of horses, being a descendant 
of the Arabian stock of Asia. The American Thoroughbred 
found commonly in Kentucky and Tennessee is from the 



268 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

English breed. This breed is not excelled for speed and 
endurance. No other horse approaches the Thoroughbred 
in beauty, intelligence, and courage (Fig. 156). 

American Trotter. — This (Fig. 157) is just becoming 
well recognized as a distinct breed of light horses. They 
have much of the Thoroughbred or English race horse blood 
in them. Their special characters are much the same. The 
trotting gait has been more highly developed in the new 
breed, and they are destined to become the most popular 
light carriage horses of the future (Fig. 158). 

American Saddle Horse. — This horse (Fig. 159) has been 
called the Kentucky saddle horse. The South had much to 
do with the building up of this new breed. The blood in 
the breed traces back to the English Thoroughbred and 
the Canadian pacer. The best animals of the American 
saddle horse are qaick in action, developing some speed 
if desired, and showing good style. They also have a variety 
of gaits suitable to the pleasure of their riders. Besides 
the walk, trot, and canter of other horses, they also develop 
the running-walk, the slow pace, the fox trot, and single-foot. 

The Mule. — A mule is a cross between a true donkey and 
a horse. The donkey is a native of Asia. Mules are raised 
in every part of the country, but particularly in the South. 
They are of several types, chiefly differing in size. Large 
mules are extensively used for all farm purposes. 

In the large mule markets of St. Louis, Chicago, Kansas 
City, Louisville, and New Orleans mules are classified some- 
what according to height, weight, and soundness. Those 
sold as plantation or farm mules are 16 to 163^ hands high; 
next in order of size are the lumber or logging mules, railroad 
mules, levee or dock mules, and mine mules. The common 
thought regarding mules is that they are treacherous and 
apt to kick; this is not true, at least not more so than horses. 
They are usually very faithful and reliable. They are quick 
in movement and have wonderful endurance. 



HORSES 



269 




Fig. 156. — A Thoroughbred, "Oponsia," the true racing type. 




Fig. 157. — American trotter, "George G." 



270 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fig. 158.— Pure-bred Moma!,. I - Morgans wero ;' . . i . 1 as a family of 

trotters; uow tney iire bred as a Uisuiict sl>lc. 



1 '^" " 


^K/fr^p^'^ 


fj 


B^^^>v^' 


■' '"^ 


'■■'^:-:ML.M^ 



I'm. lo9. — Cnauiuiou .-a.iu.t- li>ji.-e, 'Hmtiaence.' 



HORSES 271 

Care and Management of Horses. — Much skill is required 
to care for horses in the best way. The appetite, condition 
and spirit of the horse must be watched. Regularity should 
be exercised in the matter of feed and water. 

The horse should be groomed and the coat kept in a 
healthy, sleek condition. 

Examine the shoulders of working animals and protect 
them against any suspected soreness. Such parts should 
be bathed with water and the cause of the soreness removed. 

Some one who would recognize the defects should exam- 
ine the teeth for sharp points and for decaying places. 
Swollen gums may be looked for if a horse refuses to eat 
corn. 

The feet of the horse should be carefully examined, 
particularly if lameness is detected. The hoofs should be 
trimmed when overgrown. The shoes should be regularly 
changed and always suited to the kind of work to be per- 
formed. 

Plenty of exercise must always be given to horses. The 
amount of grain in the feed should be reduced when the 
labor is lightened. The proper balance between the amount 
of exercise and feed should be maintained. 

The farm horse at light work may be given 6 to 10 pounds 
of oats and 7 to 10 pounds of hay daily. At medium work 
he should have 10 pounds of oats and 12 pounds of hay. 
When doing heavy work the amount should be increased 
to 12 or 13 pounds of oats and 12 or 13 pounds of hay 
daily. 

Inspecting Horses. — Horses are often unsound in one or 
more respects. They must not be considered sound if they 
have any physical defects or blemishes. A person intending 
to buy should always examine the animal thoroughly. 

Examining in Barn. — While a horse is in his stall he may 
show some of his acquired vices. Cribbing, or biting the 
stall, wind sucking, kicking the stall and persistent pawing 



272 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

are easily detected. Have him stand over to the other side 
of the stall; he may have string-halt and, if so, may be 
unable to lift the foot on the affected side. Look for the 
halter-pulling habit. 

Inspection Out of Doors. — Out in the yard, examine 
every part of the head, legs, feet, and body for diseases and 
defects. Go all over one side and then the other, being care- 
ful to overlook nothing. Look for colds or similar troubles 
about the nose, and swellings about the lower jaw and throat 
Examine the mouth for bad teeth. The mouth may show 
signs of a harsh bit. The eye should be free from bad dis- 
charges, and must be sensitive to light. Feel the top of the 
head for sores or swelling or any unusual tenderness which 
would make him hard to bridle. The withers and back may 
show scars of old running sores. Look for signs of collar boils 
on the shoulders. Scars on the knees may indicate a stum- 
bling h:.bit. Watch closely for enlargements, wind-puffs, 
or other defects of the front legs. Feel for ring-bones, 
bunches or scars near the hoofs and just above them. 
Feel the cartilages at the back of the hoof on both 
inner and outer sides; if hard they are called side bones, 
and will cause lameness. The hoof should be of proper 
shape, size and color, free from cracks, and the foot not 
contracted at the heel. The frog in the center of the 
sole should be elastic. 

The hind leg and foot can usually be examined without 
danger by having some one hold up the front foot on the 
same side of the body. Look for signs which indicate a kick- 
ing habit. The hocks are important and the two should be 
compared in detecting curby hocks, soft or bog-spavin, and 
bone-spavin. Compare the right and left legs below the 
hocks in looking for ring-bones, scratches, cracks or any 
defects of the hoof and foot. Walk, trot, and gallop the 
horse and watch closely to detect any irregularity in 
gait, due to lameness or bad habits. Heaves and other 



HORSES 273 

difficult breathing may be noticed when the horse is 
exercised vigorously. 

Exercise. — Unsoundness in Horses. — Let pupils examine 
a horse for unsoundness. If a horse is brought to the school 
yard by some one, the class may assemble about the horse 
after studying the above lesson on "Inspecting Horses" 
(Fig. 160). 

Exercise. — Height and Other Measures. — With an ordi- 
nary tape line, measure the perpendicular distance from the 




Fio. 160. — Small boys examining a horse for unsoundness at tlie school. 
(Agricultural Education.) 

top of the withers to the ground. How many hands high 
is the horse ? Compare the length of the head, from tip of 
nose to poll or crown, with the length of back from 
the withers to the hips. Two different horses may be 
compared as to width of hips, width of breast, girth, 
length of leg, and other corresponding parts which indicate 
symmetry. 

Exercise. — Age of Horses. — Let some pupils put on the 
blackboard the diagrams of the incisors of the horse to show 



274 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



how age is indicated by the teeth. Such diagrams may be 
copied from a cyclopedia or from references mentioned in 
the Appendix of this book. 

Exercise. — Horse Judging. — A number of lessons should 
be given in the judging of horses. Light and heavy types 




Fig. 161. — A good draft type, explaining points. P, poll; Cr, crest; W, withers; 
L, loin; H, hock; Bl, bone-spavin; U2, bog-spavin; P, pastern; F, fetlock; C, cannon; 
K, knee; Sp, shoulder point; M, muzzle. 



may be used at different times. Several different breeds 
may be studied in this way. The following score cards are 
to be used for this purpose. A sheet of lined paper may be 
used by students to keep scores on — one line being used for 
each of the numbers down the left side. Learn the names of 
parts from Fig. 161. 



HORSES 



275 



STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES. 



Perfect 
Score. 



Student's 
1 Score. 



1. Age 

General Appearance. 

2. Height 

3. Weight, over 1500 lbs. 

score according to age 

4. Form, broad, massive, low set, proportioned . . . 

5. Quality, bone clean, yet indicating sufficient 

substance; tendons distinct; skin and hair 
fine 

6. Temperament, energetic, good disposition 

Head and Neck. 

7. Head, lean, medium size 

8. Muzzle, fine; nostrils large, lips thin, even 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 

10. Forehead, broad, full 

11. Ears, medium size, well carried 

12. Neck, muscled; crest high; throat fine; windpipe 

large 

Forequarters. 

13. Shoulders, sloping, smooth, snug, extending 

into back 

14. Arm, short, thrown forward 

15. Forearm, heavily muscled, long, wide 

16. Kneep, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly 

supported 

17. Cannons, short, lean, wide, sinews large, set 

back 

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 

19. Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 

20. Feet, large, even size, straight; horn dense; 

dark color; sole concave; bars strong; frog 
large, elastic: heel wide, high, one-half 
length of toe 

21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from 

the point of the shoulder should fall upon 
the center of the kree, pastern and foot. . . 

Body. 

22. Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 

23. Ribs, long, close, sprung 

24. Back, straight, short, broad 

25. Loin, wide, short, thick, straight 

26. Underline, flank low 



276 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES.— Continued. 



Perfect 
Score. 



Student's 
Score. 



Hindquarters. 

27. Hips, smooth, wide 

28. Croup, long, wide, muscular 

29. Tail, attached high, well carried 

30. Thighs, muscular 

31. Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 

32. Gaskins or Lower Thighs, wide, muscled . . . 

33. Hocks, clean cut, vnde, straight 

34. Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back. . . 

35. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong. 

36. Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 

37. Feet, large, even size; straight; horn dense, dark 

color; sole concave; bars strong; frog large, 
elastic; heel wide, high, one-half length of 
toe 

38. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 

from the central point of each quarter 
should fall upon the center of all the joints 
and foot 

Action. 

39. Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 

40. Trot, rapid, straight, regular 

Total 



STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES. 





Perfect 
Score. 


Student's 
Score. 


1. Age 


4 

4 
4 




General Appearance. 
2. Weight 




3. Height 




4. Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 

5. Quality, bone clean, fine, yet indicating suffi- 

cient substance; tendons defined; hair and 
skin fine 




6. Temperament, active, good disposition 





HORSES 277 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES.-Continued. 



Perfect 

Score. 



Student's 
Score. 



13. 

14. 
15. 
16. 

17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 



21. 



22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 



27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 

33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 



Head and Neck. 

Head, lean, straight 

Muzzle, fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even. . . . 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, and 
not far apart 

Neck, muscled; crest high; throat fine; wind- 
pipe large 

Forequarters. 
Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle oblique, 

extending into back and muscled at withers . 

Arm, short, thrown forward 

Forearm, muscled, long, wide 

Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly 

supported 

Cannons, short, wide, sinews large, set back . . . 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 

Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45° 

Feet, medium, even size, straight, horn dense; 

frog large, elastic, bars strong; sole concave; 

heel wide, high 

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from 

the point of the shoulder should fall upon 

the center of the knee, pastern and foot 

Body. 

Chest, deep, low, large girth 

Ribs, long, sprung, close 

Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 

Loin, wide, short, thick 

Underline, long; flank rather low 

Hindquarters. 

Hips, smooth, wide, level 

Croup, long, wide, muscular 

Tail, attached high, well carried 

Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angles . . . 

Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 

Gaskins or Lower Thighs, long, wide, mus- 
cular 

Hocks, clearly defined; wide, straight 

Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back. . . 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 

Pasterns, strong, sloping 



278 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES.-Continued. 



37. Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; 

frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; 
heel wide, high 

38. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 

from the central point of each quarter 
should fall upon the center of all the joints 
and foot 

Action. 

39. Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 

40. Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 

Total 




Student's 
Score. 



REVIEW. 

1. Mention the market classes of horses. 

2. What are the four groups of pure breeds of horses ? 

3. Name five draft breeds. 

4. Name four coach breeds. 

5. Name three light horse breeds, and three pony breeds. 

6. Tell all you can of the Percherons. What other two breeds 
are nearly like them ? 

7. Describe the Clydes and English Shires. 

8. Tell what you can of the Suffolk Punch; also the Belgian Draft. 

9. Describe the coach horse type. 

10. Which are the oldest pure-bred horses ? What can you say of 
them? 

IL Give the origin of the American trotter, and American saddle 
horse. 

12. What is a mule ? Where are they chiefly raised ? 

13. Why should a buyer examine a horse for soundness ? 

14. For what things should he look when the horse is in the stall ? 

15. What defects may be found about the nose, mouth, eyes, and 
head? 

16. What faults may be looked for on the fore and hind legs and 
feet? 

17. Give five characteristic features of a good draft horse. 

18. Give five in contrast with these for the light horse type. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 619, Breeds of Draft 
Horses; 667, Colts: Breaking and Training. U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry Bulletin 37, Market Classes of Horses; Circufir 137, The 
Preservation of Our Native Types of Horses; 779, How to Select a 
Sound Horse. 



CATTLE 279 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
CATTLE. 

The improved breeds of cattle of to-day were developed 
from the native types found in Western Europe, chiefly in 
Great Britain. There are many named breeds, but only 
a few have gained a prominent place among stockmen. The 
most important are classified as (1) beef breeds, (2) dual- 
purpose or general-purpose breeds, (3) dairy breeds. Grade 
animals of the pure breeds may be obtained by the use of 
pure bred males of the breed desired. Good high grades 
always give better results than scrubs or natives, either for 
milk or for beef. 

Beef Breeds. — These are raised not for milk but for meat. 
Thej^ are in some rare cases so highly specialized that the 
mothers, though well fed, fail to give enough milk for their 
calves. None of the beef breeds except the Shorthorn gives 
milk enough to be considered profitable for dairy use. 

Beef animals should have deep, plump, compact bodies, 
well covered with flesh, giving them a blocky appearance; 
the back is broad; the legs are short, straight, and well- 
placed; all quarters are quite thick; the neck is short and 
thick. The whole appearance is that of meat-production. 

The chief distinctive beef breeds are: (1) Shorthorn, 
including Polled Durham, (2) Hereford, (3) Aberdeen Angus, 
and (4) Galloway. 

Shorthorns originated in northeastern England and were 
first introduced into America in 1783. They are now very 
popular cattle. In their general type most of the families 
of the breed conform closely to the beef type (Fig. 162); 
but that branch known as the Bates family of Shorthorns 
are so much inclined toward the dairy type as to be classed 
as general-purpose animals. The name was given them 
19 



280 PRODUCTIVE FARlVnNG 

because of their short horns in contrast with the long-horned 
cattle of England. The names Durham, Teeswater, and 
Holderness were local names given them in those localities 
where they were bred. 

The Polled Durhams are a hornless branch or family of 
the Shorthorn breed; the term "polled" means hornless. 
Their hornless character is their only difference from the 
Shorthorns. Cows of the breed weigh 1400 pounds or more. 
The colors vary much more than in any of the other breeds 
of cattle. The prevailing colors are red, white, and roan. 




Fig. 162. — Beef type of shorthorn, white and roan. (An. I. 

Herefords (Fig. 163) originated in Herefordshire, Eng- 
land, and were first brought to this country by Hem-y Clay 
in 1817. The breed is old and well established. In color 
these cattle are red with white faces and some white markings 
along the back, under line and sometimes on the feet and 
tail. The Herefords (pronounced Her-fords) are shorter 
legged, more blocky and a little heavier than the Shorthorns. 
They are well suited to grazing and fatten easily on the 
grassy plains of the West. There they have been extensively 
mixed with the native cattle, the grade Herefords making 
good beef cattle. 

As already mentioned in another chapter, there is now 



CATTLE 



281 



a branch of this breed without horns, the Polled Herefords. 
The hornless character in cattle is always to be desired: 
there is then no necessity for dehorning. Horned cattle 
often do each other, or their keepers, considerable harm, 
in the feed-lot or cattle car. 

Aberdeen Aligns cattle originated chiefly in the county 
of Aberdeen and the district of Angus, in the northeastern 
part of Scotland. Local names for them are Polled Angus 
and "Doddies," both names referring to their natural horn- 
less character. They are black, sleek, short-legged, plump 



Fig. 163. 




Fig. 164. 




■BT"^ J 






'^^^ 


^^^^^^^^^Vv -^ iSj^B 






^^B' 








^^H^A^^^^^^H^ft 


^^■BmI 


-■-■''■^ 


^^^EuMw 


mm^dF' 


■HHS' 


,.-<-V'5 


^■^' r-: ::.,,.■'■' "'''^ 





Fig. 163. — A. Hereford cow, of the heavy beef type ; color red and white, 

Fig. 164. — Galloway bull, black, hornless with shaggy coat. Beef type. (Kans.> 



cattle, a little smaller than the Shorthorns. Their disposi- 
tion is very quiet and gentle, and they fatten easily, either 
on good blue grass pastures, or in close feeding quarters of 
the corn-belt. The beef is of the very best quality, and the 
fattened animals bring the highest market prices (Fig. 165). 
Galloway cattle are also from Scotland, but from the 
rough districts of the southwestern part of the country. Like 
the Angus cattle, the Galloway is black and hornless and 
has very short legs. But a marked difference in appearance 
is due to the shaggy or curly hair (Fig. 164). The hair is so 
long and curly that the cured skins are used for making rugs, 
robes, and overcoats. These cattle can subsist on the poorest 



282 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

roughage or pasture, but respond rather too slowly to good 
feeding. The cuts of beef of the Galloway carcass are of good 
quality and the animals sell in the Chicago markets at prices 
next to those paid for Angus cattle. Galloway cows are 
very light milkers, but usually supply enough to raise their 
own calves. 




Fig. 165. — A product of good breeding. Aberdeen Angus calf, two years old, 
black, weight 1024 pounds. O.'ampion of the baby-beef type. (Slinn.) 

These cattle are hardy because of the climate from which 
they came. Because of this hardy character they are used 
in the Northwestern States where the winters are severe. 
Galloway cows have been crossed with the American buffalo, 
the name Catalo being given to the hybrid offspring. No 
special benefit has yet been derived from this cross. 

Dual=Purpose Breeds. — Cattle of these breeds serve two 
purposes, giving milk and producing meat, but do each 
only fairly well. They may properly be called general-pur- 
pose animals. The type of body is not so lean and angular 



CATTLE 283 

as in the true dairy breeds, nor so blocky and heavy as in 
the beef type. A few of them are heavy and inchne a Httle 
toward the production of beef rather than milk, and others 
are heavier milkers and have more of the dairy conformaxion; 
for example, the Devons and also the Red Polled breeds 
have both types. Dual-purpose breeds are quite popular 
with general farmers because they are fair milkers and the 
male calves are heavy enough to be sold for veal. Special 
farmers do not use the dual-purpose breeds very much. 
They want the best beef breeds if their special line is beef 
production; or special dairy breeds are kept for the pro- 
duction of milk, cream, and butter. 

The leading dual-purpose breeds in America are: Devon, 
Red Polled, Brown Swiss, the Bates family of Shorthorns, 
and usually the Polled Durhams. 

Devon Cattle. — These originated in England centuries 
ago, and were brought to America in Colonial times. They 
are red with an occasional marking of white on the udder. 
The horns of the cow are long and slender and curved upward. 
As suggested above they are of two types. The plump, trim 
animals are better for beef, although smaller than those of 
the dairy type. Those of the beef type fatten fairly well and 
the meat is of good quality. As milk producers, Devon cows 
rank very well, the milk being nearly as rich as Jersey milk. 
These cattle are usually much smaller than Shorthorns. 

Red Polled. — This (Fig. 166) is another English breed 
of red cattle. They are always polled, are larger than the 
Devons, and often have some white markings on the under 
parts. Solid red is most common. This is probably the best 
of the strictly dual-purpose breeds; the cows when dry will 
fatten easily, and the steers are good beef animals. The 
males will weigh from 1800 to 2200 pounds when mature 
and fat. The cows give a good flow of rich milk, but have 
very large teats and badly shaped udders. The two types 
of cattle found in this breed make it difficult for breeders to 



284 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



always secure the special type of calves which they prefer. 
Dairymen keeping this breed will often be disappointed by 
the frequent recurrence of the beef form. 

Brown Swiss cattle have been bred for centuries in Swit- 
zerland. They were first brought to this country in 1869, 
and are not yet given wide distribution. The color is dark 



■*? 








i/ 




^^^ 


"* 


^^^HHl 




t «.»-■ 


^M 






^^M^j 


H^B 




I^i 


bi 






■■ 


Wm, 


w^n. 


^J^w^^a 


-H 


■i 




"vr. W 


E 


w 




^^oae 






^^^ 




■IP*'" 


^^ i 



F'.o. 166. — Rod-polled cows, one of the dual-purpose breeds. (An. I.) 




Fig. 1G7. — Brown Swiss cow, of the dual-purpose type. 



mouse to light brown, with more or less of gray along 
t'he back line and under parts. The udder is usually white. 
The tongue and nose are dark or black, the hoofs black, the 
horns white at the base and dark at the tip. In form these 
cattle are more blocky than the Red Polled cattle (Fig. 167), 
The neck and head are large and heavy. Brown Swiss cows 
yield rather large quantities of milk. It is not very rich in 
butter fat. The climate and surroundings from which these 



CATTLE 285 

cattle come make them well suited to foraging for themselves, 
but when given good treatment and proper feed they re- 
spond well. 

Dairy Breeds. — There are several special dairy breeds, 
the chief purpose of which is the production of milk. They 
are little suited to beef production (Fig. 168). The form is 
lean and angular, inclined to the wedge shape as viewed from 
the front, side, and top. The full description of the dairy 
type is given in the score card at the end of this chapter. 
(See also Figs. 169-171.) 




Fio. 168. — Products of the dairy. One Jersey calf at the left, next a Guernsey. 
Ayrshire in the middle, and two Holsteins on the right. 

The chief dairy breeds in America are: (1) The Jerseys 
for butter; (2) the Guernseys for good quality of cream; 

(3) the Holsteins, or Holstein-Friesians, for market milk; 

(4) the Ayrshires for cheese, home milk and infant feeding. 
Less common dairy breeds are: The Dutch Belted Cattle of 
Holland, black -with wide white belts; and the French Cana- 
dian of the province of Quebec, resembling black Jersej'^s. 

The Jersey breed originated on a small island by that 
name in the channel group of islands in the English Channel. 
No cattle can be taken to that island except for slaughter 
within twenty-four hours, because of laws made for the pur- 
pose of keeping the breed pure. This is the most popular 
of the dairy breeds in America because of the richness of 



286 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

the milk. The cows are famous for the large quantities of 
butter which they produce, many of them yielding from 
fourteen to seventeen pounds of butter in a week. "Loretta 
D," shown in Fig. 169, produced 330 pounds of butter in 
120 days. The Jersey is smaller than any of the other dairy 
breeds used in this country. The general color is squirrel 
gray and fawn color. White markings sometimes appear, 
and considerable grayish shading is seen about the mouth and 
eyes. The nose is usually black or dark colored. The tongue 
and switch may be either black or white. 

Guernseys also have for their native home one of the small 
islands in the English Channel. They were first brought to 
America in 1818. The cattle are much like the Jerseys in 
their milk and butter yields. The cream is much smoother 
than that of the Jerseys, as the fat particles are not so coarse. 
The cream and butter of the Guernsey are well supplied with 
their own natural coloring matter. The cows are a little larger 
than Jerseys and more rugged in appearance (Fig. 170). 
The general colors are red-and-white or fawn-and-white. 
The nose should be flesh-colored, never black. The popu- 
larity of the breed is rapidly increasing, and even the grades 
command a high price in the butter-making sections. 

The Holstein-Friesians are usuall}^ called merely Hol- 
steins. (Hol-stines) . The longer name is derived from the 
names of two provinces in Holland, the native home of the 
breed, where it has been kept pure for many centuries. They 
are much larger than the Jerseys and are black-and-white 
in color (Fig. 171). They are the heaviest milk producers 
of all the cattle. The milk is of fair quality but not rich in 
fat. One of the best records for milk and butter produced 
by a Holstein cow was made by "Colantha 4th's Johanna," 
27,432 pounds of milk and 1164 pounds of butter in one year. 
Among dairymen who sell milk in the markets of the large 
cities this breed is very popular. In cheese-making dis- 
tricts of Wisconsin and elsewhere this breed is much used. 
The fat particles are very fine and hence the cream does 



CATTLE 



287 




'Pia 169. — Jersey cow, "Loretta D." She haa won prizes as the champion oow 

of the world in producing milk and butter. (Animal Industry.; 




Flo. 170. — Pure-bred Guernsey cow, an ideal dairy type. (Experiment Station, N. J. 



288 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fig. 171. — Grad. 



lIol>teiii cow. Notice the udder and milk-vein showing under 
the body. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 




Fig. 172. — Pure-bred Ayrshire cow. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



CATTLE 



289 



not rise quickly. This makes it suitable milk to use in 
the ordinary city delivery. 

Ayrshire cattle are natives of the county of Ayr in Scot- 
land. They are smaller than the Holsteins but much larger 

^ ■.'-" 




Fig. 173. — Schonl-h. ,\ - Mill \oiiiih; f I rmers stud jing a Hereford. 

A",rii'iiii ur.-il J .iliii .ition.J 




Fig. 174. — roints of cattle sliown on a Brown S'niss bull. M, muzzle; D, dewlap; 
B, barrel; L, loin; HP, hip or hook; K, rump; F, pin bone; T, thigh; H, hock; 
S, switch. 

than the Jerseys. In form the Ayrshires are somewhat plump 
and less angular than any of the other dairy breeds (Fig. 172). 
The calves are very good for veal. The milk-producing 
properties of Ayrshires are very much like the Holsteins, 
the yields being large and the milk not so rich in fat a^ the 
Jerseys. The milk has much total solid matter in it, thus 



290 PRODUCTIVE FARIVONG 

making its food value very high. It is valuable for cheese 
making. The colors among Ayrshires are red, brown and 
white, these colors often being mixed. The breed is much 
more common in Quebec, Ontario, New England, and New 
York than in other parts of the country. 

Exercise. — Breeds of Cattle. — The breeds of cattle that 
are most used in any section are the ones that should be 
studied most. The class may be taken to near-by places 
for this purpose, or the animals may be brought to sheds 
or barns nearer by for the purpose of class study (Fig. 173). 

Exercise. — Beef and Dairy Types. — It is important 
that students learn well the beef and the dairy type. The 
animals to be used for this purpose need not be pure in breed. 
Type specimens may usually be found without difficulty and 
should be brought to the school, or the class may go where 
the animals are found. The following score cards should 
be studied and used in the judging exercise. The names of 
the parts are shown in Fig. 174. 

REVIEW. 

1 . For what two purposes are cattle raised ? What three classes 
of breeds are used for these purposes ? 

2. Describe the beef form of animals. 

3. Name four beef breeds and tell what country each is from. 

4. Give the chief colors of each of the four beef breeds. Which 
are hornless ? 

5. Name them in order of their relative size. 

6. Which one is used most on the Western grass plains ? Why ? 

7. Which is the most hardy and cold-loving ? 

8. Give some reasons for raising dual-purpose breeds. 

9. Why should special farmers not raise them ? 

10. Tell what you can about the Devon cattle. 

11. Describe the Red Polled breed and tell its advantages. 

12. Compare the Brown Swiss with the other dual-purpose breeda 

13. Describe the dairy type of animal. 

14. Name four dairy breeds and give the special use of the product 
from each. 

15. Give the origin of each of the four dairy breeds. 

16. Name them in order from the largest to smallest. 

17. Give the colors of each. 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 206, Milk Fever; 350, 
Dehorning; 351. Tuberculin Test; 498, 569 and 539, Texas Fever; 603, 
Cattle Dips; 612. Beef Breeds; 666, Foot-and-Mouth Disease; 718, 
Cooperative Shipping. 



CATTLE 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD— DAIRY COW. 



£91 



Perfect Student'a 
Score. Score. 



General Appearance. 

1. Weight, estimated lbs 

actual lbs 

2. Form, wedge shaped as viewed from front, side 

and top 

3. Quality, hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose, 

medium thickness, secretion yellow; bone 
clean 

4. Constitution, vigorous, not inclined to beefi- 

ness 



5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 



11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 



19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 



24, 



25. 

26. 
27. 



Head and Neck. 
Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large.. 

Eyes, large, bright 

Face, long, lean, quiet expression 

Forehead, broad, slightly dished 

Ears, medium size; yellow inside, fine texture. . 

Neck, fine, medium length; throat clean; light 

dewlap 

Fore and Hind Quarters. 

Withers, lean, thin 

Shoulders, light, oblique 

Hips, far apart ; level between hooks 

Rump, long, wide 

Pin-Bones or Thurls, high, wide apart 

Thighs, thin, long 

Legs, straight, short; shank fine 

Tail, long, slim; fine switch 



Body. 

Chest, deep, low; girth large 

Ribs, broad, well sprung, long, wide apart . 

Back, lean, straight 

Loin, broad, level 

Flank, moderately low 



Milk-Secreting Organs. 

Udder, long, attached high and full behind, 
extending far in front and full; quarters 
even 

Udder, capacious, flexible, with loose pliable 
skin covered with short fine hair 

Teats, large, evenly placed 

Milk Veins, large, tortuous, large milk wells . . 

Total 



15 

15 

4 

6^ 

100 



292 PRODUCTIVE I-'ARMING 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD-BEEF CATTLE. 





Perfect 
Score. 


Student's 
Score; 


1. 

2. 


General Appearance. 
Weight, estimated lbs 

according to age 

Form, straight top-line and under-line; deep, 

broad, low, set stylish 


6 

10 

8 
5 

2 

3 

4 

2 

1 

o 

8 
8 
8 
6 
4 

4 

5 
3 
3 

2 

100 




3. 


Quality, firm handling: hair fine; pliable skin; 
dense bone; evenly fleshed 




4. 

5. 
6. 

7 


Temperament, quiet 

Head and Neck. 
Muzzle, mouth large; lips thin; nostrils large. . 
Eyes, large, clear, placid 




8. 
9 


Forehead, broad, full 




10 


Neck thick short; throat clean 




11. 
12. 


Forequarters. 

Shoulder Vein, full 

Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top; 
smis' 




13. 
14. 
15. 


Brisket, advanced, breast wide 

Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping 

Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine. 




16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20 


Body. 
Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full. . 

Ribs, long, arched, thickly fleshed 

Back, broad, straight 

Loin, thick, broad 

Flank full even with under-line 




21. 
22. 


Hindquarters. 

Hips, smoothly covered; distance apart in pro- 
portion with other parts 

Rump, long, even, wide, tail head smooth, not 
latchy . 




23 


Pin-Bones, not prominent, far apart 




24. 
25. 


Thighs, full, deep, wide 

Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth 

Total 





SHEEP RAISING 293 



CHAPTER XXV. 
SHEEP RAISING. 

Sheep have two main uses, the production of mutton 
and the production of wool. In ancient times shepherds 
also kept them for their milk. For these two present pur- 
poses there are now a number of breeds of sheep. 

Types. — Those which produce the most and best mutton 
are blocky in form and correspond closely in outline to the 
beef type in cattle. Sheep that naturally have a lean, angu- 
lar frame, like a good dairy type of cow, are of the type best 
suited for wool productioji. 

Breeds Classified. — ^Many of the common breeds of 
sheep are used both for wool and mutton. They are, there- 
fore, usually grouped according to the length or fineness of 
wool, as: fine or short wooled; medium wooled; and coarse 
or longed wooled. The medimn and the coarse wooled sheep 
comprise the mutton breeds. 

Coarse Wooled Breeds. — The coarse or long-wooled 
sheep include the Leicester (Les-ter), Lincoln, and Cotswold. 
They all originated in England. 

The Cofswolds (Fig. 175) are much more common in 
America than the others of the coarse wooled group. They 
are larger than most other sheep, the males attaining a 
weight of 250 pounds or more. The meat from the lambs 
is of fair quahty. They have no horns; the face is always 
white. The locks of crimpy wool are often twelve inches in 
length. The fleece or annual shearing from a Cotswold will 
average ten pounds of rather coarse wool with long staple 
or fiber. 

The Leicesters are of much the same type as the Cotswold; 



294 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

but the head is without wool, the fleece is not in curly locks, 
and the frame is not so large. They are also hornless. 

The Lincolns exceed the Cotswolds in size, the males 
sometunes weighing 350 or 400 pounds (Fig. 176). They are 
hornless, have white faces with a little wool on the head. 
The fleece of the body hangs in curly locks, and the staple 
is lenger than in any other breed; they shear about fifteen 
pounds to a fleece. 

Medium Wooled Sheep. — ^This group is nmch more 
popular than either of the others because of their general- 
purpose character, and their lambs mature sooner than those 
of the larger breeds. The most conmion breeds of this type 
in America would be named in about the following order: 
Shi'opshire, Southdown, Hampshire, Oxford, Cheviot, and 
Dorset. These are all natives of England, and are hornless 
except the last or occasionally the Cheviot males. They 
have brown or black faces, ears, and legs, except the Dorsets 
and Cheviots, which have white markings. All of these breeds 
have wool on the faces except the Cheviots, which are wooled 
only to the ears. Shropshires, Southdowns, and Cheviots 
increase in numbers rapidly, as twin lambs are very common. 

The Southdowns (Fig. 177) are the smallest breed named 
in this group. The Shropshires, Cheviots, and Dorsets come 
next in size and weight. The Hampshires have larger frames 
and are a little heavier, but the Oxfords stand at the head 
of the list in size and weight (Fig. 178). 

The fleeces of the Shropshire (Fig. 179), Oxford, and Dor- 
set are all of good weight and the wool of excellent qualit3^ 
These three and the Cheviots produce very good mutton, 
but the Southdown meat is popularly considered the best. 

Cheviot sheep are the best grazers, having been well 
trained to this in their native land — the Cheviot hills, be- 
tween England and Scotland. 

The Dorset breed (Figs. 180, 181) is much used for the 
production of early or winter lambs for the city markets. 



Fia. 175. 



Fia. 176. 




Fig. 175. — Cotswokl ewe, one of the longer or coarse-wooleii breeds. 
Fig. 170. — Lincoln ewe, a coarse-wooled type. 



fiQ. 17S, 




Fig. 177. — Champion Southdown ewe, one of the most popular of the medium 
wooled breeds. 

^ Fig. 178. — Oxford ram. These have the longest wool of the medium breeds. 







Fig. 179. — Prize-winning Shropshire wether one year old. 

(Experiment Station, Wis.) 




Fig. 180. — Dorset sheep making mutton on pasture, a homed breed of the medium 
wool type. (From Cornell Countryman.) 




Fig. 181. — Dorset ewes and their winter lamb.'?. This is a good breed for the 
production of winter or "hot-house" lambs. 



Fig 1S2. 



Fig. 183. 




Kk;. 1s2. — AiTieno'in Merino ram, "Perfection." Note the ^Tinkles all over him 
except on the back. 

Fig. 183. — Kambouillet or French Merino of the fine wooled type. 




Fig. 184. — A lesson in judging sheep. (U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 



SHEEP RAISING 295 

The "hot-house" lamb industry, as this is called, is a growing 
and special line of the sheep industry in America. 

Fine Wooled Sheep. — This is the Merino group. Their 
wool is very fine in quahty and the fleeces much heavier 
than in the other breeds. There is an oil secreted by the 
skin which makes the wool very oily; this is called the yolk. 
The oil catches much dust, which always gives the sheep a 
dirty appearance. The sheep are quite small in size and lack 
the plump form found in the mutton breeds. The mutton 
is not of good quality, and none but the largest are used for 
this purpose. 

There are three breeds of Merinos found in America. 
They are all descendants of the original Spanish blood. These 
are (1) American Merino; (2) Rambouillet (Ram-boo-ya) 
or French Merino; (3) Delaine Merino. The males have 
spiral horns and the females are without horns. 

In all of these the fine wool covers the body and legs down 
to the feet; but the nose and ears are usually free from wool. 
The American Merino (Fig. 182) is the smallest and has deep 
wrinkles or folds all over the body except on the back. The 
Delaine is less wrinkled and is somewhat larger. The Ram- 
bouillet (Fig. 183) is much the largest of the group, with 
no folds at all except sometimes on the neck and breast. 

The Merinos are all hardy and good grazers. Their 
grades are used for grazing in large flocks on the Western 
plains. 

Care of Sheep. — Sheep naturally live in mountainous 
and hilly regions, where they get their living by feeding 
on grasses and native plants of all kinds. There is now 
greater profit from the raising of sheep in those sections 
where the country is too rough for the raising of cultivated 
crops. Sheep make good use of the land that would other- 
wise be wasted. This is true to a greater degree with sheep 
and Angora goats than with any other domestic anmials. 
Sheep are naturally kept in flocks, the Merinos in very large 



296 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

flocks and the mutton breeds in smaller numbers. The 
handling of very large numbers of any breed in a single 
flock requires considerable experience. It is better to begin 
with small flocks. 

Winter quarters for sheep should not be very warm. 
The animals have their own coats and will suffer if housed 
too closely. It is highly important that they be kept per- 
fectly dry in every respect. Protective shelter from rain 
and snow to keep the coats dry, and good drainage in the 
sheds and lots to keep the feet dry, are essential to success. 

During the winter the flocks should be divided so that 
all will have equal opportunity at the feed trough and racks. 
Not over twenty-five or fifty in a single flock should be the 
rule. When the numbers are large they may be sorted into 
such groups as: first, wether lambs; second, ewe lambs; 
third, shearling ewes; and fourth, breeding ewes. 

The winter feed for sheep should include plenty of rough- 
age, such as clover hay, cut corn fodder, and oat straw. They 
are very fond of root crops, and plenty of sugar beets, 
mangles, or turnips should be provided. 

Great care and constant attention are required by the 
shepherd when lambing time comes. New-born lambs must 
not become chilled. Some ewes fail to own their lambs 
and must be held for the young to draw the milk. These 
and many other points require the immediate attention of 
a good shepherd. 

Exercise. — Samples of WooL—Typicsd samples of wool 
may be brought by pupils or obtained from noted breeders 
through the mail. These should be fastened with thread 
to cards and labelled with the name of the breed. Let 
students point out the difference in wool while studying 
the breeds of sheep. 

Exercise. — Breeds of Sheep. — Pupils should be given 
an opportunity to become familiar with all the breeds or 
the types of sheep kept in the section where the school is 



SHEEP RAISING 297 

located. Typical specimens may be brought to the school; 

or the students may go where the sheep are kept (Fig. 184). 

Score cards for fine wooled sheep and for mutton sheep may 

be used in judging such sheep. Write to the Agricultural 

College of your State for such score cards. (See address 

in the Appendix.) 

Projects With Sheep. — 1. A Iamb feeding project is well suited to 
young people studying agriculture. Lamb clubs may be formed to 
add more interest. The project should start with six or more spring 
lambs, preferably wethers, to be fed for mutton. This project may 
continue for several months and should include pastm-e period, 
fattening period, marketing, treatment for disease, keeping records of 
weights at beginning and end, all costs, income, and profit. The story 
of the project should be written at the close. 

2. Ewe lambs raised and kept for breeding will form another good 
home project. These should be high grade or pure bred lambs. 

3. A few good ewes of breeding age may be selected to start a 
project to continue for a year. Include all feeding and care of adults 
and lambs, prevention of disease, selection of breeders and feeders 
among the lambs, and keeping records such as those suggested in 
project No. 1. 

Sheep Debates. — -Resolved, that there should be more profit in 
one year from a sheep project with 25 ewes than from a swine project 
beginning with 5 sows; or a dairy project beginning with four good 
milk cows. Labor, feed, cost, interest, and income to be considered. 
In preparing for the debate make lists of these items and all arguments 
on both sides of the question. 

Pure bred vs. scrub grades. Coarse wool vs. medium wool breeds. 
Warm houses vs. open houses. • Early lambs vs. late lambs. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the two main uses for sheep? 

2. What are the three classes of sheep? Wliich two of these arj 
used for mutton. 

3. Describe the Cotswolds. 

4. Compare the Leicesters and Lincolns with these in every way 
that you can. 

5. Name five breeds of the medium wooled sheep. 

6. Give the chief differences between these five breeds. 

7. Which breed is used for the winter Limb industry? 

8. Describe the Merino breeds and tell their differences. 

9. For what kinds of places are sheep best suited? 
10. Describe best winter quarters for sheep. 

IL Why should the flock be separated into small numbers in winter? 

References. — Write to your congressman for several copies each of 

the following U. .S. Farmers' Bulletins on raising: 713, 798, 810, 840, 

929, 935, 1051, 1150, 1155, 1172, 1181. Use these in assigning topics, 

in project studies, and in reading classes. 



298 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

CHAPTER XXVI. 
SWINE PRODUCTION. 

Swine Raising. — Before deciding to be a swine specialist 
one should do several things: (1) Make a stud}^ of the dif- 
ferent breeds. (2) Study the best methods of care, manage- 
ment, and marketing. (3) Cain some experience in growing 
swine by beginning with a few. 

Hogs are most abundant in the Corn Belt of America 
because they produce a home "market" for the corn gi-own 
on the farms. They may be produced with as great profit in 
the East and South, particularly where markets and pastures 
are good. Plenty of pasturage is essential to profitable swine 
growing. 

The conmion practise, in some sections, of keeping pigs in 
small pens or dry lots without green feed, is seldom profitable. 
Mud and filth make them a menace to human health ; the pigs 
are apt to become diseased; their growth is slow; and the feed 
given them is often largely wasted. 

Where pigs are kcjit for the purpose of consuming sub- 
stances that would otherwise go to waste, they may be kept in 
hurdle pens easily moved to clean fresh grass. Light, movable 
pens are sometimes used in keeping pigs on vacant lots in 
villages. These are frequently moved to clean grass and no 
objectionable odor is produced. 

The use of pigs to consume by-products or wastes, is quite 
common in all sections. Undigested corn or other grain in 
cattle feed lots; gleanings from stubble fields; skim milk, 
whey and buttermilk; tankage and other slaughterhouse 
wastes; weeds; small potatoes and other garden by-products; 
kitchen refuse — these are all turned into cash value when 
consumed by growing pigs. When such by-products are used 



SWINE PRODUCTION 299 

to good advantage the profits are greatest. This may be the 
reason why more swine are raised in the United States than 
any other class of livestock except cattle. 

When to Buy Breeding Stock. — Do not hesitate about 
going into the swine business just because prices of market 
pigs happen to be low. That may be the very best reason for 
increasing your nmnbers, for others are apt to be dropping 
out and rising prices will be the result. Periods of high prices 
always follow periods of low prices. 

Keep Good Swine. — It is from the wild forms of the Old 
World that the improved breeds of swine have been developed. 
The changes wrought have been truly wonderful. The time 
required for tlie pig to mature has been reduced more than 
one-half. The tendency to become very fat, which is so well 
marked in some breeds, is not found in wild hogs. Domestic 
pigs are usually quiet, not wild and ferocious. 

To obtain the best results in swine management, it is 
necessary to keep pure bred or high grade swine. They are 
more proUfic, fatten easier, mature at an earUer age, and are 
larger than the scrubs. 

Which Type of Swine. — There are a nmnber of breeds of 
swine but only a few have become very popular in America. 
They are of two types first, lard or fat type; and second, the 
bacon or lean type. The form of the body in the fat type is 
compact, deep, broad, and low, with short back and deep, 
fat sides; the neck is short and thick; head small; hams and 
shoulders large. 

The bacon type has long legs, long neck, coarse head, 
narrow back, long and deep sides, in many respects the very 
opposite of the fat type. Bacon swine are kept for their fine, 
lean cuts of bacon. The demand for this type is not so great 
in the United States as in England, because the fat type is 
better suited to corn feeding. 

Which Breed of the Fat Type.— The most popular breeds 
of swine in America, of the fat type, are Poland China, 



300 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Hampshire, Berkshire, and 
Spotted Poland China. Others of less prominence are 
Cheshire, Victoria, Small Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk. 

America has produced very few new breeds of horses, 
cattle or sheep, but a number of good breeds of swine have 
been developed here. Swine from Europe are not so well 
suited to the use of American field corn as to the grains of 
their own country. ]\Iany of the English breeds are of the 
bacon type and will not thrive so well on corn. The 
Berkshire is the only very popular English loreed in this 
country. The Poland China originated in Ohio, the Chester 
White in Chester County, Pennsylvania, and the Duroc- 
Jersey in New Jersey. 

The Poland China (Fig. 185) and the Berkshire are both 
black with some white markings on the face, legs, or other 
parts. The Chester White and the strain called Ohio Im- 
proved Chester (0. I. C.) are white in color. The Duroc- 
Jersey is red or some modification of that color. These are 
all large in size and the pigs mature earl\% The Berkshire has 
erect ears and a dished face; in the others the ears are droop- 
ing. The Duroc-Jersey is liked throughout the country 
because of the large litters of pigs. 

The white breeds of swine are not much used in the South 
and Southwest because of the greater danger of skin diseases 
in hot, sunny climates. (See U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 765 
Breeds of Swine.) 

Which Breed of the Bacon Type. — The Large Yorkshire 
(Fig. 187), Tam worth (Fig. 180), and Hampshire are the 
leading breeds of the bacon type of swine. The last men- 
tioned originated in Kentucky and the others in England. 
The Large Yorkshire is white, the Tamworth red, and the 
Hampshire black with a wide white belt. 

How to Begin Swine Raising. — The beginner should start 
on a small scalfe. Losses from too large nmiibers may be 
serious and cause discouragement. There are several safe ways 
of beginning. 




Fig. 185. — The lard type, a Poland China sow. Color, black with 
white markings. 




Fig. 186. — A Tamworth sow, red, representing the bacon type. 




Fig. 187. — Students judging large Yorkshire swine. The bacon type. 
(U. S. Office of Experiment Stations). 




Fig. 188, — A form of brood house for sow and pigs. Easily removed 
to a clean place to prevent disease. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 301 

1. For boys and girls, one of the least expensive methods is to secure 
female pigs of weaning age, called gilts. Experience in feeding and caring 
for these is gained before they are of breeding age. They may be mated 
with a pure bred boar when at an age of eight months or so. When they 
farrow three months and twenty days later it should occur in the mild 
weather of spring or fall so that most of the pigs may be raised. 

2. A good way to start is to buy one or two good young sows safely 
in pig. The tj'pe and quality of the sows may be well judged at this age 
and it is not necessary to secure a boar the first season. The returns come 
sooner than in plan No. 1. The inferior females in the litter may be 
culled and sold with the males as soon as heavy enough. This leaves the 
best gilts and their mothers for the future breeding stock. 

3. A plan which gives quick returns is to buy male (or barrow) pigs 
of weaning age to be kept as feeders only. When these are sold for pork 
the money may be used for the purchase of breeding stock by plan No. 1 
or plan No. 2. 

4. Probably the poorest and most expensive plan for beginning is to 
buy a sow with her litter of pigs. Of course the qualities of the sow may 
be well judged at this time, and the pigs may sell for enough to justify 
the purchase. 

Scopes of Swine Projects. — Young people planning home 
projects with swine, to be pursued during the years they are 
in school, may choose one of the preceding plans. Let each 
project continue for a year or more if possible. Manage the 
enterprise in such a way as to make it beneficial to the student 
in both training and income. The first cost of any such pro- 
ject is the greatest difficulty to overcome. When once 
started the project should continue long enough to get the 
income from at least two litters of pigs, if conditions will per- 
mit. One fall litter and one spring litter can be developed 
within one year if plan No. 2 is chosen for starting. 

Selecting Breeding Stock. — After deciding which of the 
two types of swine to raise, and which breed to keep, the 
breeder of swine should use good judgment in selecting the 
foundation stock. 

The sow should be typical of her breed, whether pure or 
high-grade. She should be of good breeding form with rather 
long body capable of producing and supporting a good udder. 
The heart girth, measured just back of the fore legs, should 
be large. She should be vigorous and hearty, not puny nor 
dainty. Not too thin nor yet too fat. She should be well 



302 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

developed before mating at eight months of age or more. Do 
not buy a stunted sow. If a bred sow is chosen select one that 
will farrow in fall or spring, as extreme heat of summer and 
cold of winter ai-e ol)jectionable in raising young pigs. If an 
old sow is selected, she should not have l)ecn rebred until 
several weeks after her j)reccding litter was weaned. The 
number of pigs she raised before maj" he a good indication of 
her qualities as a mother. Count the number of well devel- 
oped mammary glands. A sow that raised a good-sized first 
litter is preferred to one that raised only a few. 

The Boar. — ^In choosing a boar to which to mate sows 
consider the following points: 

(1) Use a pure-bred if possible; (2) oiie of the same type and breed 
as the sows; (3) well developed for his age and not under eight months 
of age; (4) one having the breed characteristics; (5) strong in any points 
in which the sow is weak ; (6) one not used too much ; (7) not too fat, nor 
too thin; (8) one having plenty of exercise. 

Care of the Breeding Stock, — Good Quarters are essential 
to success with sows and young pigs. A good type of movable 
house is shown in figure 188. If this type of house is adopted 
make one for each sow and have a lot fenced off for each. 
The cost is low and it may be easily made. It should either 
face the South in winter, or the window in the back may be 
turned to the South if the door is kept closed. Move the 
house to clean ground when needed. A rail or shelf, about 
eight inches from the base, is constructed around the inside 
along the walls. This allows the young pigs to find a place of 
safety when the sow is about to lie down. She cannot kill 
them by crowding them against the wall. In cold climates a 
floor is needed in the winter house, but in warm weather no 
floor is necessary. 

Pastures, — Provide plenty of pasturage for all times when 
there is no snow covering it. Not only should the owner 
provide lots where the pigs may run, but he should plan 
ahead and have crops planted that will make green growth 
at all times of the year. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 303 

In some lots have p)ermanent grasses and clovers growing in their 
seasons. In others have Dwarf Essex Rape or turnips for spring and fall 
seasons. Have small grains growing for winter greens, and also winter 
vetch and crimson clover in regions where they will thrive. Provide 
fresh green growth for the hot, dry weeks of summer, using thickly sown 
kafir, sorghum, Sudan, cowpeas, soybeans, and sweet corn. Have some 
good shade in the pasture for protection in hot weather. 

Pastures not only provide the green succulence neces- 
sary for the health and growth of pigs, but the necessary 
exercise, the protein for the ration, and much of the mineral 
matter. Pigs on pasture will make more rapid growth and 
cheaper gains than any others. They are healthier and have 
better frame-work because of good pasturage. 

Care at Farrowing Time, — Try to provide quarters for 
the sow where she will be very comfortable, neither too cold 
nor too hot. Provide bedding that is easily moved, as cut- 
up straw, chaff free from dust, or wood shavings from a plan- 
ing mill. Avoid long tangled straw that would entrap the 
pigs and cause them to be mashed. Keep her bed clean at all 
times. Have the quarters diy and free from drafts of air. 

Before farrowing time the sow should have bran mashes 
made with skim milk or butter milk. Some tankage may 
well be mixed with it. She must have plenty of mineral 
matter to eat as given in this chapter. With such feed she 
will not only be in good health but she is less likely to eat her 
young pigs. Continue to use such feeds aftei* farrowing also. 

Make the sows gentle by scratching, rubbing, talking 
kindly, and petting when among them. No rough treatment 
should ever be allowed. Watch sows closely at farrowing 
time and help pigs and mother if needed. Sows that have had 
proper feed and exercise seldom have trouble at this time. 
Do not interfere if the sow is quiet and the pigs seem strong. 

If the place is cold and the pigs seem v.'eak, they may be placed in a 
nest box lined with warm carpet, containing a hot water bottle, and all 
covered with a blanket. Place the pigs in this drying nest until dry and 
ready to nurse. A drink of the mother's warm milk very soon after birth, 
is important. Strong pigs need no help to get this, but the weak ones 
may need your help at first. If a pig seems dead when he comes 



304 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

promptly wipe out his nostrils and mouth; pull the tongue forward, 
press a time or two on his ribs to induce breathing. Try blowng air into 
his lungs. He should revive in a moment, if at all. 

When pigs are about a day old look for needle teeth 
at fore cornei'S of each jaw. If they are prominent remove 
them with a pair of pliers to prevent them from causing sores 
in their own mouths and from injuring their mother and 
other pigs. 

Feeding the Sow and Litter. — If good pasturage is pro- 
vided, the sow and litter should be fed a wet mash of wheat 
middlings, gluten meal, or similar meal rich in protein. 
This should be made into a thin mash by mixing with butter- 
milk, skim milk, whey or warm water. It need not soak for 
more than a few hours. Corn is not a good feed for a sow and 
her litter. It is too rich in starchy matter, called carbo- 
hydrate. When the pigs are a few weeks of age they should 
be able to eat wet mash and drink milk from a trough. Pro- 
vide a place for them to have a trough of their own and give 
them skim milk with a little middlings and meal added to it. 
Such a pig creep may be made in one corner of the lot. This 
feeding will help them and save the mother. Runts of the 
litter will thus have a better chance than before. This plan 
will gradually make pigs so independent of their mother that 
weaning has very little effect on them or their mother. If 
weather will not permit them to feed on pasture, supply them 
with turnips or other roots. 

Water. — Running water, or other good fresh water should 
be provided, besides the slop furnished them. Do not depend 
on stagnant pools of water for your swine if you expect them 
to be thrifty. 

Mineral Matter. — It is well to supply legumes, bran and 
other feeds rich in mineral matter, for growing swine; but in 
addition to such feeds, they should be supplied with a good 
mixture of such materials as the following, for the mineral^! 
they contain: 



SWINE PRODUCTION 305 

Plenty of charcoal, soft coal dust, and wood ashes ; small amounts of 
common salt, saltpeter, sulfur, and air slaked lime. Secure as many of 
these as possible, mix them together and keep them under shelter where 
the pigs have constant access to them. 

The bones and other tissues of the body require much 
mineral matter for their development. The owner should not 
fail in providing these cheap materials for the pig's growth. 
Pastures are not so badly rooted by pigs supplied with 
minerals. 

Four Feeding Periods, ^ — The Ufe of a spring pig may be 
conveniently considered as divided into four feeding periods 
of six or eight weeks each: 

(1) The milk -period, during which time a large part of his growth is 
from his mother's milk, but some sloppy feed may be added. (2) the 
wet mash period, when the feed is mostly given in the wet form and 
plenty of skim milk is supplied to him. The ground feeds, such as 
middlings, gluten, and other feeds lich in protein are used in the wet 
mash, (see feed table in Appendix), and some sliced roots and clover 
pasture are provided. (3) The pasture period, when the clovers and 
grasses produce the greatest growth. A Uttle wet mash is fed at the first 
part of this period and a little dry grain toward the last. (4) The com 
l^eriod, or fattening stage. It is well to use some succulent feed in addi- 
tion to the corn, but it is not best to give a wide range on pasture at this time. 

Fattening, — ^If this four-period plan of feeding is followed 
for early spring pigs they can be sold at the best price without 
carrying them over winter. During this fattening period, 
when it occurs in the fall, the swine may be allowed to "hog 
off " a corn crop. This saves labor of gathering the crop and 
of feeding the hogs. 

SeK-feeding hoppers are sometimes used by owners of 
swine, particularly in regions outside the corn belt. The 
swine may be allowed to balance their own rations by having 
different kinds of feed in different bins of the hoppers. 

The cost of producing a pound of live weight is much less 
for growing pigs than for those which have reached maturity. 
For this reason the farmer finds it more profitable to sell his 
market pigs before they are a year old. Those to be sold as 
fat hogs should not be fed through two winters. In most 



306 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

markets the price per pound is best if they do not exceed 225 
or 250 pounds Uve weight. 

Protection from Disease and Parasites, — Lice. — Parasites 
must be killed or prevented if swine are to be thrifty. Lice 
are best controlled ])y liberal use of crude oil. Sacks wet 
with crude oil may be tied around posts where swine will rub 
on them. Sprinkle oil on shoats when they are feeding close 
together. They will rub it on each other. It may be nec- 
essary to catch the individuals and rub the oil on their under 
parts. Do this thoroughly with an oily cloth. 

Worms. — Pigs are subject to several kinds of intestinal 
worms, kidney worms, and lung worms. They are seldom 
serious if the quarters for feeding, wallowing and sleeping are 
changed often or otherwise kept clean. Pigs are not natur- 
ally filth-loving and their owner should aid in keeping them 
clean. Ponds where they wallow should be changed from time 
to time, or they may be covered with crude oil to hold para- 
sites in check. Eggs from the droppings of hogs may be 
s^^ allowed by pigs eating in filthy places or sucking from 
filthv udders. In every way try to keep troughs and feeding 
floors free from all filth. Use common disinfectants freely 
after cleaning. 

Several diseases are connnonly found to attack swine. 
Tuberculosis is spread to pigs from cows, chieflj^ through the 
milk. Scours, indigestion, sore mouth, pnemnonia, etc., are 
not uncommon. Probably hog cholera is the most sei'ious 
disease of swine. 

Hog Cholera. — Swine production is much hampered by 
the disease known as cholera. This is very contagious. It 
spreads from place to place in several ways, as ])y running 
streams, by buzzards, crows, dogs and other animals, and on 
the shoes of men. Care must be taken to prevent the disease 
from spreading in any way. Swine may be vaccinated to 
prevent cholera. This method is used by most owners. The 
plan most commonly followed is to inject anti-cholera serum 



SWINE PRODUCTION 307 

into the tissues of the body, and at the same time to inject 
in a different place a little dose of virus. When this is done by 
someone who understands all details, it should make the pigs 
immune to cholera. Doses of sermn and virus vary with the 
weight of pigs. Ask county agents or other authorities to 
show methods and give advice regarding treatment to prevent 
hog cholera. (Farmers' Bulletin 834). 

Pig Project Problems. — A pig club boy started with two pure bred 
gilts which he bought from a neighbor at eight doHars each, at weaning 
time, May 15. Each weighed 30 poimds and was 60 days old. He made 
a movable pen of eight ft. strips of 1 by 3 inch lumber and four corner 
posts each 3% feet high of 2 by 4 inch lumber, costing two cents per 
board foot. Some barrel staves for palings were given him. Find the 
cost of the pen allowing 10 cents for nails and 50 cents for the boy's 
labor. Answer .$1.12. 

2. Using a scale of }4 inch to a foot, draw a plan of one side of the 
pen showing two corner posts, top and bottom strips of 1 by 3, and the 
staves nailed to these strips. 

3. Calculate the cost of feeding, watering, moving the pen to fresh 
grass, and other care of the two pigs for the 90 days of this boy's owner- 
ship, allowing 25 minutes per day at 10 cents per hour; 400 pounds of 
feed averaging SI. 40 per hundred; 25 cents for mineral matter; 120 
gallons of skim milk valued at 8 cents per gallon. Answer .S19.20. 

4. The combined weight of the pigs was then 300 pounds. What was 
the gain for each per day for the 90 days? Answer ly^ lbs. 

5. What was the average cost per pound of gain for the first 90 
days? (see result in problem 3). Whiit was the cost per day? 

Answer 8 cents. 21 >^ cents. 

6. At the same rate of cost per pound of gain, what will they have 
cost the boy when they are 12 months of age if they then weigh 600 
pounds? Include cost of pigs and pen. Two A-shaped houses were 
built in the fall at a cost of $25 each, one-tenth of which should be 
charged to each gilt. Answer .165.32. 

7. One of the gilts was taken to the County Fair in the fall at a cost 
of $3, but won a prize of $10. Deduct this net income from the result 
in problem 6. Answer $58.32. 

8. Litters of 9 and 11 pigs farrowed March 15 were all raised. 
Allowing $60 for feed, labor, etc., since the time mentioned in problems 
6 and 7, what was the average cost per pig at weaning time, Mav 14? 
(Charging all to the 20 pigs). Answer $5".92. 

9. Twelve male pigs were then sold for an average of $7.50, but the 
registration of the 20 pigs and membership in the swine association cost 
$20. $1.00 was spent for advertising, and $6.00 for anti-cholera inocu- 
lation. Compare with the cost found in problem 8, and find the net cost 
of the 8 gilts and 2 sows. Answer $55.32. 

10. He then sold 4 of the registered and inoculated gilts for $12 
each. What must he get for each of the mother sows to clear $80, on the 
year's project, besides the 4 gilts he keeps? Answer $43.66. 



308 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



PROJECTS, EXERCISES. TRIPS, AND SURVEYS 

1. Swine Surveys. — lA't each hicihImm- of t,h(> class make one or 
more sets of questions, similar to the foUowiiifj;, leaving; room for answers, 
and have them filled in ut home and at neifihhorinti places. Have all 
returned the second day and coimt up in ela.ss the results from most of 
the points. Keej) this rejjort and tlie papers for further swine study 
and for aid in making arithmetic problems. 

(1) Name. (2) Size of swine pasture and crops in them. (3) Size 
of swine lot. (4) Kind of hog houses. (5) No. of pur(> l)red sows. (6) 
What breed. (7) No. grade sows. (8) No. and name of sire. (9) No. 
pigs raised per year. (10) Does owner register them? (11) At what 
ages are they sold? (12) Prices. (13) Age or weight when sold or killed 
for meat. (14) Is meat cured and smoked? (15) What f<M>ds for sows 
with i)igs. (1(>) Feeds for fattening. (17) Cost per pound. (18) Treat- 
ment for lice. (19) For worms. (20) I'or cholera. (21) Deaths and 
causes in past year. (22) Kinds of wallows. (23) Provision for mineral 
matter. (24) Provision for watering. 

2. Students should rejwrt in class fi-om time to time any local swine 
practices by farmers, as new pasture seeding, sizes of new litters, weigh- 
ing and gains in weight, new houses, making of feed-hoppers, hogging off 
crops, inoculation, oiling wallows, treatment for lice, new purchases, 
prices at sales, weights and methods at butcliering time. 

3. JiulginR of swine to aid in selection of animals may be done with 
animals brought to the school by farmers, or the class may go to neigh- 
boring farms toward the end of the school day. (^r the county agent, 
a vocational te;icher or soine good swine raiser may take them to suitable 
farms, faiis, sales, etc. 

4. Methods and management may be studied in such ways as sug- 
gested in No. 3. Suitable times for special studies at particular farms 
may be learned through m(>mbers of the class (see No. 2). 

5. Inoculation and Other Treatments. — Airange for the county agent 
or some other qualifuMl peison to demonstrate^ f o th(> class how to inoculate 
pigs against hog cholera, treat them foi' worms and lice, mark them for 
identification in registration, nip off needle teeth of day old pigs. 

6. Registration. — Students should i)ractise making ai)plications for 
registration of pure bred pigs. Blanks for this can b(> obtained by writing 
to the secretary of the association for th(! breed of swine. Ask the (jounty 
agent for the address. 

7. Advertising. — ^Students in language class may practise writing 
brief advertisements of pure bred pigs for sale. 

8. Pig projects should be started at home by members of the class. 
Let several of the plans suggest(>d in this chapter be followed by different 
members. Practise at school the vaiious steps suggested in the preceding 
group of problems. 

9. Swine Feeding Projects.— Very good pig feeding projects may 
be conducted by boys and girls during the sununer vacation. Select 
good grade weanling pigs from litters in the region. Have them all 
barrows if possible and of rath(>r uniform size and type. They sho\dd be 
started on wet mash (see period No. 2 in pr(>ceding tojiic). Give them 
plenty of good pasture or have it ready for them very soon. Follow 



SWINE PRODUCTION 309 

the suggestions for feeding and try to make them reach a weight of 250 
to 300 pounds Hve weight at six or seven months of age. If possible 
weigh them once a week. Perhaps tliey may be fattened at 1 he end of the 
period by hogging olT a crop of corn antl soybeans. Keep records of ail 
items of cost — including feed, labor, rent for pasture, housing, etc. 
Watch market prices for different weights and prepare to sell to best 
advantage possil)le. .loin cooperative shipping association if one is 
formed and let it help in marketing. (Jet pri(!es frequently from local 
buyers. Calculate the total exjjcnse, the total income and the net pro- 
fit or loss. 

10. Preparing pigs for show may be practised by members of the 
class having swine of suitable ages in their home projects. Study 
premium lists and select the best swine. Feed to condition tlicm. 

11. Making pens and houses may be a part of tiie home projects. 
Students should pra(!tise making things at school which will help them in 
their hom(> projcM-ts, — pig creeps, troughs, self-feed(>rs, mineral bins, 
shipping (aates, etc. 

12. Records of home projects should be kept by students. These 
should be brought to school and used in the arithmetic cliass. Let them 
be criticised by pupils and teacher and then used in problem work. 

Swine Debates. — Discussions and debates may be hekl in class on 
such points as the following: That it do(^s not pay to keep pigs, intended 
for market- or for slaughter, beyond six or eight months of age. Pure 
bred swine vs. .scrub swine. Movable; liouses vs. stationary houses. 
Pasture system vs. dry lot syst(>m of growing young swine. Two litters 
a year vs. one litt(>r a year. Fat type vs. bacon type. That lice and 
worms do more harm than hog cholera for the American swine industry. 

Swine Contests. — ^ Students should contest and try to excell in 
weights of maiket pigs at six months of age; in best daily gains with 
pigs; in percentage of points in pig clubs; in greater profit with pigs; 
in showing pigs at- community fairs and other fairs; in judging swine at 
fairs, sal(!S, and on farms; in writing best projcict storicss; in describing 
the breeds of swine; in planning continuous pasture systems. 

References. — Write to your congressman for several copies each 
of the following U. S. Farmers' Bulletins on swine: 411, 438, 614, 765, 
780, 781, 834, 874, 006, 951, 966, 985, 1018. 1085, 1186. Use the.se in 
assigning topics, in project studies, and in reading classes. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is swine raising so popular in the corn belt? 

2. Compare the pasture method with th(> dry lot method of rai.sing 
swine. (Debate) 

3. Of what advantage is a movable pigpen to a village ownei- of 
pig?? 

4. What forms of waste may pigs use? 

5. What are the advantages of keeping good swine instead 
of scrubs? 

6. Describe and contrast the two types of swine. 



310 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

7. Name the four most common breeds of the fat type and give 
colors. 

8. Name three breeds of the bacon type and give their colors. 

9. Describe the first mentioned (least expensive) plan of starting 
with swine. 

10. Give second plan and its advantages. 

11. Give plan No. .3, for quick returns. 

12. What is the chief objection to the fourth plan? 

13. Which of the four plans of starting have you known to be used? 
Which will you follow? Why? 

14. Which plan did the boy use in the project on which the ten 
problems are based? Describe this project. 

15. Which plan will allow for two litters from one mother in a one- 
year project? Explain such a project. 

16. Give the important points in selecting a good brood sow. 

17. Describe one or more good hog houses you know or about which 
you have read. 

18. What pasture crops are grown in your region? 

19. Give points on the care of sow and litter at farrowing time. 

20. How should a sow and pigs be fed? What is a pig creep? 

21. W^hat forms of mineral matter should be supplied to swine? 

22. What is hogging-off a crop? Describe how it is managed. 

23. What is a self-feeder? Give its advantages. 

24. Tell how to control lice with crude oil. 

25. What di.seases or parasites of swine are known in your region? 
WTiat remedies are used for each? 

26. Describe a successful swine project of your own or of someone 
you know. 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 311 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 

The term Poultry commonly includes chickens, ducks, 
geese, and turkeys; but may also refer to guineas, pigeons, 
pheasants and peafowls. The keeping of poultry by farmers 
is usually only incidental to other lines of farming. But in 
some sections, particularly near large cities, poultry raising 
is extensively carried on as a special line of farming. 

The value of poultry and eggs produced annually on 
American farms is about two-thirds of a billion dollars. In 
their values they exceed all other live stock except horses 
and cattle. Poultry products equal the value of the combined 
mine products of gold, silver, iron, and coal. When consider- 
ing the value of poultry on the farm the farmer should remem- 
ber the great food value of the eggs and meat, the large num- 
ber of injurious insects destroyed, and the ease with which 
they may be fed, often living almost entirely on products 
that would otherwise be wasted. 

The production of improved breeds of poultry has 
received much attention by poultrymen. This is particularly 
true of chickens. There are many divisions of this specialty, 
such as the production of eggs in winter, raising early broilers, 
the raising of fancy birds for shows, the raising of ducks, 
geese or turkeys. 

Varieties of Chickens. — There are more than one hundi-ed 
varieties of chickens. These may be grouped according to 
their purposes into four classes: (1) Egg breeds, (2) meat 
breeds, (3) general-purpose breeds, and (4) ornamental breeds. 

Egg Breeds. — These are of light weight. They mature 



312 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

and begin lajang very young. They include all the Leghorns 
(Fig. 189), Minorcas (Fig. 190), and Spanish, of the Medi- 
terranean class, and also the less common Red Caps of the 
English class. The eggs of these egg breeds are usually 
white. 

Exercise. — Egg Records.— The records from small or 
large flocks of chickens near by may be collected. The 
pupils may find a wide difference among them. Have the 
causes of the difference explained by pupils if the conditions 
can be learned. Save the records to use in arithmetic class. 

Meat Breeds. — The very heavy breeds of the Asiatic 
class are very slow-maturing fowls. The Cochins, Brahmas 
(Fig. 191), and Langshans belong to this group. They all 
have feathers on the shank, or lower part of the leg. The 
Dorkings and Indian Games are also called meat breeds. 
The heavy meat breeds are not noted for their egg-lajing, 
but the meat is excellent. They are good sitters, but clumsy 
as mothers. 

General-Purpose Breeds.— All varieties of the American 
class belong here. This includes the Pl>anouth Rocks (Figs. 
192 and 193), Wyandottes (Fig. 194), Javas, Dominiques, 
Rhode Island Reds, and Buckeyes. The Orpingtons from 
England and the Houdons from France are also included in 
this group. General-purpose breeds are medium in weight 
and they vary a great detsl as to their egg and meat-produc- 
ing qualities. They mature much younger than the meat 
breeds, but not so early as the egg breeds. They aic good 
sitters and mothers. 

Ornamental Breeds. — ^These are used for show purposes, 
and include the Bantams, Games (except Indian Games), 
Polish, Frizzles, Silkies, and other less common classes. The 
Houdons are sometimes considered as ornamentals, because 
of their large crests. All breeds of poultry, regardless of 
class, are bred quite commonly for show purposes. 




Fig. 189.— Single-comb white Leghorn hen, one of the best of the egg-laying breeds, 




Fio 1«0 —Black Minorca pair, an egg-laying breed producing the largest white 

eggB. 



I'lo. 101. 



Via. 102. 




Fui. 191. — T.iRlit Uralinia hen, oiio of the most popular of lionvy fowls. 

Kiu. 192. — Barred I'lyuiouth Kuck heu, tlie luost popular of the general-purpose typo. 



Fia 193. 



Fia. 194. 




Fio. 193. — NN'hitn Plvmoutli Kock lit-n, a RPiieral-purpose breed. 
Fio. H)4. — rn/.e-wuuiiiig wlute \\ yauilotte heu. 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT ;n;? 

What Variety to Keep. -It is very impoilanl (o kvv\) 
v;iri('tic\s hcsl suilcd to the pui'posi^s (l{\sir(>(l. Vov lar^c 
numbers ol" c'f;fj;s poult i-yjiuMi use th(> ('f;f>; hi-ccds, and use 
tluMu \vliil(> youu^'. The (icsl ycai- is their hcsl, cj^f^-Iayin^ 
y(>ai'. l''()r lal)lc> us(\ keep the meat breeds. Witliiii the 
\ai'ieti(\s tlieic ar(> certain strains or laniilies wliicli nvc better 
tJuin others biH'auso they have been .seleet,ed with reference 
to a special j)urpose. 

ExEucisK. — Study of Varieties. L(>t liie |)U|)ils who 
have scHMi pui'e-bi'ed chick(>ns descril»e them to I h(> class, 
ir some are now keepinji; any of liie pui'e breeds, ha\'e them 
weij;h some of them and report weifi;hls to the class. ( 'om- 
pare lh(>se with the standard weights <;i\-en in the UnitiHl 
States Farmers' Hullelins S()(i, SOS, 1050 and 12121. 

Housing. — ( 'hickens should iiave sixM-ial placets ma(l(^ for 
them to roost and to la,\' ej!;,ii;s. it is yvvy bad practic(> to 
allow them to us(> buildings and placets intended I'ov other 
pur|)os(>s. 

Tlu^ poultry house ma>' be xrvy simple and inexpensi\'e 
(Figs. 195, 10(1, l!)7). It should l)e <\\\ and comfortable in 
winter, free from drafts of air, but with pl(>nty of fi-esh aii' 
and direct sunshine. Many poult r>' raisers now use light- 
weight nuislin si retched on \\-ood frani(>s in the south sidc^ 
of their poult r>' houses. The frames ai'c hinged in place at 
the top and are k(>pt opiMi every day (>\cept when the weather 
is stormy. In many of these houses no glass windows ai'c 
used. In others the south side is part glass and part nuislin. 
TIk^ curtains prevcMit any strong drafts of air at night and 
in stormy weather. In houses with loo little \'entila.tion the 
fowls will suffer more from extrem<>ly cold weather than 
in tliose with nuislin cmtains. 

Artificial lieat in a poultry house is not advisable, except 
for brooder chicks. Winter featluMs are so warm that arti- 
ficial heat often leads to some form of sickness. The better 



314 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

plan is to build the houses with low ceilings over the roosts 
so that the chickens will sleep warm because of their own 
heat (Figs. 198 and 199). Extra curtains may be placed in 
front of the roosts for use on cold nights. The sides and roof 
of the house should be well built to keep out drafts of air and 
rain. Chickens thrive in houses that are cool and dry better 
than in those which are tlanij) and warm. 

Location of Poultry House. — This is very important. 
Select a high spot to put the chicken house on. Natural 
drainage away from the ])uilding will help in keej^ing the 
ground dry and free from disease. Sandj' or gravelly soil is 
better than clay for the same reason. A place gently- sloping 
to the south is best. Where natural slopes are not found the 
surface drainage may be provided by grading the ground 
with the use of horses and scrapers. This should be done 
before the house is built. 

Wind Breaks should he provided on the north and west 
sides. They are sometimes composed of evergreens or other 
trees planted ver}^ near together. Tight board fences may 
be built. Where the house is placed on the south side of 
larger farm buildings the worst winds are kept away. 

Inside the House. — If the house faces the south, with the 
muslin windows on that side, then the roosts should be along 
the north side of the room. Place all the roosts on a level 
with each other, or nearly so. Have a board platform built 
six inches below the roosts to keep the floor clean and make 
more room for litter and for the fowls to scratch. The nests 
may also be placed under this platform if the room is small. 

The roosts, nests, and platform should be so made as to 
be easily cleaned. These as well as the inside walls should be 
covered with lime white-wash, containing some disinfectant 
renewed from time to time. 

Dust Boxes. — Chickens love to wallow in dust. This 
helps to keep them free from mites and lice. Dust boxes 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 315 

should be provided, particularly in winter time. These may- 
be filled with a sifted mLxtui-e of ashes and dry soil. Place 
the boxes in sunny places. 

Feed Troughs and Hoppers. — These should be used only 
for the ground feeds, whether wet or dry. For wet mash 
the troughs are best; but for dry, ground feeds, called dry 
mash, the self-feeding hoppers are used. Make the feed 
boxes in such a way as to prevent the fowls from getting 
into the feed to scratch. The whole grain should be fed 
in deep litter. This will induce the chickens to do more 
scratching, and keep them strong and healthy. 

Self-Feeding hoppers are made so as to allow the fowls 
to eat near the bottom. As fast as the feed is used up more of 
it runs down from above. These are called dry mash hoppers 
(Fig. 200). 

Grit Boxes. — Boxes for grit, charcoal, and oyster shell 
may be fastened to the walls above the litter, for use at all 
times. 

Drinking Fountahis. — These should be placed a foot 
above the floor for grown chickens. This helps to keep the 
water clean. A simple water fountain can be made thus: 
A gallon pail or can or jar without a top is used (Fig. 201). 
Make a nail hole on one side one-half inch from the top. 
Fill with clean water. Place over it a flat pan somewhat 
larger than the mouth of the vessel used. Then suddenly 
invert the fountain, and place it on a low box in the poultry 
room. As the water is used out of the pan more will flow 
down until it is gone. Care should be taken to wash it well 
each day, and to keep it well supplied with clean wUter. 
All chickens require much water to drink. 

Feeding Systems. — Much discussion has been carried 
on by poultry raisers as to the feeding systems to be followed. 
Some are most successful with the wet-mash system of feed- 



316 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ing fowls. This system consists in feeding wet ground feed 
once or twice a day and diy grains at other times. 

Recently a number of poultrymen have adopted a plan 
known as the dry-mash system of feeding. A dry mash is 
made by mixing a nmnber of finely ground feeds together. 
This is kept in a self-feeding hopper or feeding fountain at all 
times. Besides this dry mash one or two feeds of mixed whole 
grains are given in the deep litter on the floor. The heat- 
producing feed, as whole corn, is fed in the evening, during 
cold weather. 

Exercise, — Feeding Dry Mash.- — ^If possible, to make a 
trial in winter, let one or more persons near by try the diy 
mash, fed by the hopper method. They may report results 
to the teacher or to the school. 

Feeding for Winter Eggs. — The feed for egg production, 
as well as for forcing the growth of young broilers, should 
be very rich in protein. Below are given several different 
rations in use on egg farms: 

Dry Mash No. 1 — 100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds 
wheat middlings, 100 pounds alfalfa meal, 75 pounds good 
beef meal. 

This is given as a dry mash. Whole wheat or a mixture 
of wheat and oats is thrown in the litter every morning; 
and whole corn or cracked corn in the evening, just before 
roosting time. Shell, grit, and charcoal are kept in separate 
boxes. 

Dry Mash No. 2. — 100 pounds cornmeal, 100 pounds beef 
meal, 100 pounds alfalfa meal, 5 pounds oyster shell, 3 pounds 
grit, 3 pounds charcoal. 

This mash is fed in the open hoppers and kept supplied 
constantly. Two grain feeds are given in the htter each day 
to get the fowls to exercise. This is a mixture of one part 
oats, two parts cracked corn, and three parts wheat. 

Wet mashes are very commonly fed to chickens of all ages. 




FiQ. 195. — A colony house two stories high for laying hens. The nesf s and srratehing 
litter are on the ground. 



Fig. 196. 



Fig. 197. 




Fig. 19G. — Movable cliick brocxler house heated by gasoline. 
Fig. 197. — Brooder house for raising incubator chicks. The Houdon chicks 
have been raised in tliis house. 




Fig. 198. — Open-front colony house for poultry, ready for a muslin screen in 
large wndow. Through the window may be seen the roosts, platform, and nests. 
Hens enter nests from the dark side at back. The hinged board allows the easy 
removal of eggs. 




FiQ. 199. — Sectional view of shed-roof poultry house, shown in Fig. 198, having a 
muslin curtain in front instead of glass. 



ri? 



/ 




Fig. 200. — Dry-mash hopper. The wire screen over the lower opening prevents 
the waste of feed. 








Fig. 201. — A simple drinking foun- 
tain for poultry, easily cleaned each time 
before filling. 



Fig. 202. — Sprouted oats as winter 
green feed for hens. The oats are wet 
and put in a shallow tray in a warm room 
for about ten days. (Maine.) 




Fig. 204. — A hundred white Leghorn cliicks from an incubator. (Cornell.) 

■J 




Fig. 20.'5.— a good way to prepare eggs for market. Each dozen is uniform 
in size and color and packed in the dozen-size carton of pasteboard. The crate is 
painted and labelled with the owner's name. (H. R, Lewis.) 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 317 

They are very effective as forcing feeds, but the careless use 
of them tends to produce disease of various forms. The two 
mixtures given here may be sHghtly changed to suit different 
conditions. 

Wet Mash No. 1. — One hundred pounds each of ground 
oats, ground corn, ground barley, and bran. 

Wet Mash No. 2. — Equal i:)arts by weight of ground 
corn, bran, ground oats, and cut clover or cut alfalfa. 

These are each supplemented with grain, fed in the litter; 
and grit, shell, and charcoal in boxes. Meat scraps are 
usually given separate from the wet mash. 

Exercise.— PowZ^r?/ Rations. — All the pupils who have 
poultry at home should tell of the daily system of feeding 
and watering, and of the rations fed. Men or women who 
are successful poultry raisers may be invited to tell the school 
their plans of feeding and other practical points. 

Succulent Feed. — Chickens should have plenty of suc- 
culent green feed, if possible. The best forms of this in 
winter are cabbage, turnips, and beets; as substitutes, clover 
and alfalfa hay may be fed wet or dry, either whole or cut 
fine. Growing rye or other winter crops furnish green feed 
in late fall and early spring. Oats may be sprouted in flat 
boxes in a warm room and fed to the fowls daily (Fig. 202). 

Care of Poultry. — ^Poultry raising is an art most easily 
acquired by practice combined with a study of the prin- 
ciples underlying it. 

The health of the fowls nmst be guarded. They must be 
kept free from vermin. Brush crude oil (petroleum) on the 
roosts once a week through the warm weather. Spray this 
oil on the walls and in the nest boxes. The conditions and 
effects of moulting must be understood. Hatching with hens 
and with machines and the raising of young chicks must be 
learned by practise. Many helpful suggestions along these 
Hues are given in United States P armers' Bulletin 585. 



318 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ExEECiSE. — Running an Incubator. — (Fig. 203). — In the 
spring time, when the school-room does not get too cool at 
night, run an incubator in the school-room. One may be 
borrowed for the purpose, or the pupils may earn money 
enough to buy one and supply the eggs and kerosene. Follow 
directions carefully. Appoint certain pupils to attend the 
incubator each day. Make a record form on large paper 
or cardboard on the wall. Let this show each morning and 
evening: (1) the temperature, (2) whether i-egulator is open 
or shut, (3) condition of lamp, (4) who filled and trimmed 
the lamp, (5) who turned the eggs. The chicks hatched may 
be cared for at school for two weeks or taken to one of the 
homes when one day old (Fig. 204). United States Farmers' 
Bulletin 624 will be helpful. Either of the two types of 
outdoor brooders shown in Figs. 196 and 197 can be made 
by boys at home. 

Exercise. — Color of Yolk. — When the grain fed to hens 
is chiefly oats the yolks are much lighter colored than when 
they are fed corn, particularly yellow corn. Let this dif- 
ference in color of yolk be shown at school by having eggs 
brought from flocks fed in these ways. 

Exercise. — Packing Eggs. — Let pupils tell of the dif- 
ferent ways they have seen eggs packed for market. Some 
can tell of the ways they come from stores. Should the eggs 
be washed, if dirty, before marketing? Should they be sorted 
by size as apples usually are? Do you know of any markets 
where the prices are higher for white-shelled eggs, or higher 
for brown-shelled eggs? (See the method of packing shown 
in Fig. 205). 

Exercise. — Weight of Eggs. — Weigh a dozen large eggs 
and get the average weight in ounces. Weigh a dozen small 
eggs and get the average weight. How many of the large 
eggs does it require to weigh a pound, and how many small 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 319 

ones? Eggs are usually sold by the dozen, but in some 
places by the pound. Which way is fairer? 

Exercise. — Drinling Fountain. — Have some one make 
a drinking fountain like the one described and figured, and 
show how it works (Fig. 201). 

Exercise. — Testing Eggs. — Let some form of tester be 
used in testing eggs brought from homes or from a store. 
Eggs are usually candled in some stores to detect any not 
suitable for human food. This is done thus: Put a candle 
or stronger light in a dark box; have an oval hole a little 
smaller than an egg in one side, even with the light; let that 
part of the room where the testing is to be done be darkened 
somewhat. Hold an egg over the hole and look for any 
dark or clouded parts in the contents. Other forms of egg 
testers are in use. The eggs in an incubator are usually 
tested the sixth or seventh day to see if a live, growing 
germ is present. 

Exercise. — Preserving Eggs. — Let some of the pupils 
preserve a few dozen fresh eggs. April or IMaj^ is a good 
time to preserve them for winter use. The eggs may be 
kept at home and the report of the trial made to the class 
a few months later. Directions: Scald out a stone jar with 
boiling water. Prepare a solution, using water that has been 
first boiled and then cooled to ordinary temperature. To 
each six quarts of water add one pint of water-glass pur- 
chased at a drug store. Select clean (not washed) fresh eggs, 
and place them in the jar. Pour the liquid over the eggs 
covering them more than an inch above the top ones. Keep 
them in a dark, cool, dry cellar. Sterile eggs keep best. 

Problems.— A flock containing 28 pullets laid 1600 eggs 
in January, February and March — 

1. What was the average number of eggs from each. 

2. What was the average number of eggs from the flock 
for each of the 90 days? 



,'J£0 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

3. If 400 of the (>ggs wore laid in January and sold at an 
average price of 3(5 cents a dozen, what was the income for 
January? 

4. If they laid 500 eggs in February worth 30 cents a 
dozen, what was the income for the month? 

5. They laid 700 eggs in March which were sold at 18 
cents a dozen. What was the amount of th(> month's sales? 

6. Find the total income from the 28 pullets for the three 
months. 

7. l^'ind the average income from each hen for the three 

months. 

Poultry Projects. — A miniher of different types of home projects 
are pursued by l^oys anil girls in America. These are the most common: 

1. Start with a few setting of eggs of some pure breed and hens 
to hatch them; brood the chicks; cull them; fatten and market the 
culls; (l(>velop the breeders and layers; continue to one year from 
starting time. Keep all records carefully, and write an account of 
the project. 

2. Start with a good lot of eggs and incubator and continue as 
in No. 1. 

3. Start with a good lot of baby chicks and continue for one 3'ear 
or less. 

4. Start with eight to fifteen pullets and a cockerel. Produce 
eggs, hatch, brood, and raise the chicks; cull, feed and market males. 
Develop breeders for next season. This may be continued for as many 
years as desired and should increase in the number of layers each year. 

5. Short time projects may run for a few months, only, in the 
production of eggs or broilers, or fries for profit. 

6. l'\M'(ling projects may be completed in a few weeks and may 
include chickens of any desired age. Crate fattening is a good type of 
feeding project. 

Poultry Debates. —The following topics are suggested for discussion 
or debate: That poultry luisbandry is more profitable tlian any other 
line of animal industry. Egg farming vs. poultry meat production — 
broilers, fries, roasters, capons. Egg breeds vs. g(>neral purpose breeds. 
That community egg circles should be established. That one or two 
breeds for a county are better than many breeds. Pure breds vs. 
grades or scrubs. 



BEE-KEEPING 321 



REVIEW 

1. Tell what you can of the importance of the poultry industry 
in this country. 

2. Give a list of the special egg-laying breeds of chickens. How 
many colors of these have you heard of ? 

3. Give a list of the special meat breeds. 

4. What is meant by general-purpose breeds? For what are they 
used ? Name them. 

5. Describe a good location for a poultry house. 

6. Why should chickens have a house of their own ? 

7. Tell of the plan for mushn windows for poultry houses. Why 
are they used ? 

8. Mention some of the requirements of a good poultry house. 

9. Why not use artificial heat in poultry houses ? 

10. Tell of some good wind-breaks for the poultry house. 

11. Describe, or draw on paper, the inside arrangement of the poultry 
house. 

12. Why are dust baths necessary for hens? 

13. Describe a good drinking fountain for chickens. 

14. What do poultry raisers mean by wet mash and dry mash? 

15. Why should some grain be thrown into the litter every day ? 

16. Describe a daily ration for laying hens. (1) Wet system, (2) 
Dry system. 

17. What feeds will supply succulence in winter? 

18. Tell how to destroy vermin on roosts and in nests. 

References. — Write to your congressman for several copies of 
each of the following U. S. Farmers' Bulletins, and use them in 
making assignments of the topics, in pi'oject studies, and in reading 
classes: 287, 528, 574, 585, 624, 65(), 682, 684, 697, 767, 791, 801, 
806, 8:W, 849, 8.58, 889, 898, 957, 1018, 1040, lO.Ti, 1066, 1070, 
1105, 11 0(), 1107, 1108, 1109, 1110, 1111, 1112, 1113, 1114, 1115, 
1116, 1200, 1221. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
BEE=KEEPINQ. 



When the subject of pollination of fruit trees was dis- 
cussed two purposes of bee-keeping were mentioned. The 
production of honey and the pollination of fruit blossoms are 
both sources of profit on the farm. A fairly good average 
yield from a colony of bees each season is forty pounds of 
extracted honey or twenty-five pounds of comb honey. 
When honey is extracted from the combs the bees are not 



32£ PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

required to build new combs and much of their time is saved 
for honey-making. 

There are very few bee-keepers who make this the only 
source of their income. It is usually combined with other 
lines of farming. Bees are kept in both city and country. 
The flowers, or bee-pastures, from which bees secure their 
nectar, must not be too far from the hives of the bees. Bees 
frequently go two or three miles in search of nectar, but their 
main supply should be much nearer. 

Breeds.— The wild honey bees are of the black or German 
variety, brought by early settlers to this country. This breed 
is also kept by a few farmers. The chief objection to bees 
of this breed is that they are very cross and easily excited. 
A number of other breeds have been brought to America. 

Italian bees are now much more in use than any other 
breed. These bees are easily managed, and are good defend- 
ers of their hives. They are good honey gatherers. Italian 
bees are easily recognized by the three yellow bands across 
the body behind the wings. They are more difficult to 
keep over winter than some of the other kinds. Hybrid 
bees are commonly found in American bee yards. Many 
of these have been formed by Italian bees crossing with 
other breeds. 

Cyprian bees are the best honey gatherers, but they have 
bad tempers and their management is difficult. 

Carniolan bees are very quiet. They are the largest of 
all our breeds of bees, and have great wing power. As honey 
gatherers they are among the best. They multiply in the 
hives quite rapidly and much time is spent in swarming to 
divide the colony. 

Caucasian bees are very gentle, good workers, and defend 
their hives well. They swarm rather too often if kept in 
small hives. 

Syrian bees are much like the Cyprians in temper, and 
they are not as thrifty workers. 



BEE-KEEPING 323 

The Colony. — Bees in a colony are of three kinds, workers, 
drones, and queens. The workers number from 30,000 to 
40,000 in a colony at the beginning of the gathering season. 
These do all the work of the colony; they are really females, 
but never lay eggs. There are only a few hundred drones 
or male bees, and only one queen. The queen bee lays all 
the eggs to produce new colonies. 

The Life of Bees. — The workers, acting as nurse bees, 
place the eggs, laid by the queen, in the bottom of the wax- 
cells. The larva hatches from the egg in about three days 
and is fed with pollen and honey by the nurse bees. In five 
days the pupa stage is reached. It rests as a pupa for thirteen 
days, when the mature insect appears. Twenty-one days 
are thus used in the development of worker bees. Queens 
are produced in a little less time, and drones require twenty- 
four days. The first duty of the young workers is to act as 
nurses. But in about two weeks they begin gathering honey. 
Workers usually wear their wings out and die in less than one 
season. Queens live several years. The drones are nearly 
all killed and thrown out in the fall or before the winter is 
over. The life of the colony is kept up by young bees. 

Honey=Making. — Worker-bees visit flowers, suck the 
nectar, and store it in honey sacks in their bodies. They 
fly to the hive and deposit the nectar in wax cells, made by 
other workers. Some of the workers dry out the nectar by 
producing a breeze with their wings over the cells. Study 
the structure of the worker-bee as shown in Fig. 206. 

White clover, alsike clover, alfalfa, basswood, locust, 
fruit trees, buckwheat, and golden-rod are among the best 
plants for the production of nectar. There are hundreds of 
plants grown for other purposes which are used by bees in 
the making of honey. 

Hives. — A good beehive is in the form of a box with a 
removable bottom and top (Fig. 207). The bottom projects 
to form an entrance platform. A small slot is made in the 



324 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fig 206 — Bee structures: a, worker-bee, pollen loaded; 6, mouth parts of a 
long-tongued bee; c. hind leg of bee showing pollen earner; d, wax cutter and 
cuiTV-comb of 1st joint of hind leg; e, antenna-cleaner of fore leg;/, hair of bumble- 
bee; e, h, i, hairs of three different kinds of bees. (From Smith's "Insect Fnends 
and Enemies.") 



BEE-KEEPING 



325 



front just above the floor for the entrance of bees. Frames 
are hung inside the box, and are supphed with honeycomb. 
These combs will become filled with honey and yomig bee- 
bread. Then another box called a svper is placed above the 
first one. If comb honey is wanted for use or for market, 
the super is supplied ^vith small frames to hold one pound 
each. If liquid, or extracted, honey is wanted the frames 
in the super are much larger. From these the honey is 
removed without destroying the cells. 




Fig. 207.— Typical beehive. (From "The A, B, C of Bee Culture/ 
A. I. Root Company.) 



Swarming. — In early summer the hives of bees usually 
become overcrowded with bees, because of the young broods 
maturing. This brings on the desire to swarm. One queen 
goes out with the swarm, usually leaving a queen cell in the 
old hive from which a young queen emerges in a few days. 
The swarm usually gathers on some object, as a tree near by. 
If an empty hive is ready the queen and most of the bees 
can be taken while quiet and placed near the entrance to 
the hive or in the hive. The colony will then adopt this as 



326 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

its new home. It is important that hives be watched closely 
at the season when most of the swarming is done. This will 
help to prevent loss of swarms. Many swarms are lost each 
year by not knowing when the queen and bees leave the hive. 
One way of preventing loss in this way is to keep the wings 
of the queen clipped so that she cannot fly away. This is a 
common practice among bee-keepers. 

Winter Care. — Bees should be protected during severe 
winter weather. They may be placed in sheds or dry cellars, 
or in houses built for the purpose. They must not be kept too 
warm, but sudden change in temperature is bad for the bees. 
Hives are sometimes made double and the space between the 
walls is filled with sawdust or other material. The hives are 
sometimes covered with straw, carpet or other means of 
protection. The door is left open so that bees may exercise 
on warm days. 

Exercise. — Bee Studies. — Students may tell what plants 
they have seen bees visiting for honey. Also what methods 
they know to prevent the stinging of bees; how hiving of 
swarms is done; and what means ot protection are used in 
winter by local bee-keepers. 

REVIEW 

1. Name the several breeds or races of bees. 

2. Which one is most in use in America ? What are its character* 
istics ? 

3. What three kinds of bees are in a colony ? About how many of 
each kind ? 

4. Describe the development of the young honey bee. 
.5. Describe the making of honey. 

6. Tell how a beehive is made. 

7. What is the super? What is it for ? 

8. Why do bees swarm ? When is this most common ? 

9. Tell of the need for winter care of bees. 

References. — U. S. Farmejs' Bulletin*: 442, Bee Diseases; 447, 
Bees; 503, Comb Honey; 653 Honey and Its Use in the Home; 695, 
Outdoor Wintering of Bees. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 327 

CHAPTER XXIX. 
FEEDS AND FEEDING. 

The nourishment and development of animals is more 
complicated than the growth of plants. Their growth is 
from the use of substances ready formed in plants, or which 
have been derived from them. These are transformed into 
flesh and bone. 

Composition of Animals. — The animal body is composed of 
substances derived directly or indirectly from plants. It may 
be divided into two classes of products, water and dry matter. 

Water ordinarily is more than one-half of the total weight 
of the live animal and is necessary for the proper nourishment 
of the body. Pure fresh water should be supplied freely to 
all animals. 

The dry or solid matter of an animal's body is made up 
of several different substances, called tissues, as fat, muscle, 
bone and others. The chief substances which enter into 
these are fat. protein, horny matter and mineral matter. 

Exercise. — Water in Flesh. — Heat a small piece of fresh 
lean beef or other meat in a long glass test tube. Notice 
the water which rises and collects on the cooler parts of the 
vessel. If delicate scales or balances are in the school, the 
meat may be weighed before and after heating. Thus the 
weight of water driven off may be determined. 

Exercise. — To Get Dry Matter. — Place a few small pieces 
of air-dry wood of any kind in a glass test-tube or bottle 
over a flame or on a hot stove. The moisture will escape 
from the wood and condense on the cooler parts of the gla,ss 
above the wood where it can be seen. After a time only the 
dry matter will remain in the bottom of the glass. If the 
wood be weighed before and after drying, the per cent of 
dry matter may be determined. 
22 



J28 IRODUCTIVE FARMIXG 

Essentials in Animal Feeds. — As the animal body con- 
sists of several classes of substances, it demands similar 
classes from the feeds consumed. The substances in animal 
feeds are: (1) Protein, (2) carbohydrates, (3) fats, (4) mineral 
salts. 

Protein. — The protein of a feed includes vegetable albu- 
men, fibrin, and other substances similar to the protein of 
the animal body. The term albumenoids was formerly used 
to designate this class of substances when contained in feed 
or in animal tissues. 

The different kinds of protein substances vary somewhat 
in their composition. They are all rich in nitrogen, and are 
quite uniform in their value in feeds. They are the most 
important of the compounds in feed, and are indispensable, 
as they are the sole direct source of the protein in the bodies 
of all domestic animals. The chief forms in which protein 
is found in the animal 's body are : albumen, fibrin, and casein. 
These differ widely in appearance but agree in containing 
about the same percentage of nitrogen. Gluten is abundant 
in wheat. Albumen is well represented by the white of an 
egg. Fibrin is seen in the white solid of coagulated blood 
remaining after the red color is washed out. Casein is the 
basis of cheese. 

Exercise. — Protein in Wheat. — Make some stiff dough 
of wheat flour. Wash the dough in cold water to remove 
the starch. The remainder will become very elastic. It is 
made up chiefly of that kind of protein called gluten. The 
"gum" formed from chewing wheat is also chiefl}- gluten. 

Exercise. — Study of Protein. — Examine some of the 
other substances mentioned, and let pupils become familiar 
with the different forms of protein. Have present the white 
of egg, both raw and cooked. American cheese or cottage 
cheese, or both, may be put into small bottles with a weak 
solution of formalin to preserve them for future use in 
illustrating that form of protein called casein. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 329 

Carbohydrates. — Plant fiber, sugar and starch are the 
most important of the carbohydrates. They are of about 
the same composition, containing carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen only, no nitrogen being present. 

The cell wall or structural part of a plant is called cellulose. 
Where great strength is needed, the cell walls become thick 
and hard as in trees. There is little cellulose in seeds. It 
is found in greater proportions in ripe hay, straw, and corn 
fodder. Paper is now chiefly made from the cellulose or 
fiber of wood. Flax fiber and cotton are good examples of 
nearly pure cellulose. Pure fiber has very little color, odor, 
or taste. 

Exercise. — Cellulose. — Make wet paper balls of as many 
different kinds of paper as you have in school. The water 
will remove starch and other substances and leave the pure 
fiber or cellulose. Brown paste-board may be used to illus- 
trate the fiber in straw of small grains. Fiber of flax is 
found in linen paper and linen cloth. Most soft white 
paper is made of wood fiber. 

Starch is stored by nearly all kinds of plants. It is a very 
abundant substance. Small grains, corn, and the dry matter 
of root crops are especially rich in this substance. Potatoes 
and com furnish most of the pure starch in the commerce 
of America. Because of its abundance and ease of digestion, 
starch is one of the most important feeds. It is readily 
converted into glucose, or grape sugar, by treatment with 
acids. The glucose syrups are largely derived from the 
starch of corn. 

Exercise. — Showing Starch. — Cut open kernels of corn, 
wheat, rye, and other common grains. Examine the white 
powder. This is nearly pure starch. 

Sugars are closely related to starch. There are three 
kinds: cane sugar, milk sugar, and grape or fruit sugar. 
These are very much alike in composition. All resemble each 
other in their properties. Cane sugar is the common sugar 



330 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

of commerce. It is derived from the stems of sugar-cane 
and from the sugar-beet. Milk sugar is from the milk of the 
cow and other animals. Grape or fruit sugar is abundant 
in honey and sweet fruits and occurs in the juices of 
many plants. 

Sugars are easily digested, as they are all readily soluble 
in water. When animals eat sugar beets and sorghum fodder 
the sugar is used directly as feed. Sugar is a very important 
feed and although it occurs only in small quantities in 
ordinary feeds, it is formed in large quantities from starch 
during digestion. 

Fat. — The fat in animals agrees closely in composition 
with that contained in plants. Fat exists in some seeds, as 
flax and cotton, in such quantities as to make them valuable 
as sources of oil, for feed and other uses. Most of the oil 
is pressed out before the remainder of the seed is used 
for feed. 

Exercise. — To Show Presence of Oil. — Get seeds of flax, 
cotton, sunflower, or castor bean. Crush them and rub 
between the fingers to detect the oil. It has been stored 
there by plants for future use of the young plant sprouting 
from the seed. 

Mineral Matter is what remains of plants after they have 
been burned; it is the ash. Some plants, as alfalfa, are rich 
in mineral matter. In ordinary fodders there is usually 
enough to supply the needs of the animal body. Common 
salt is fed separately. Hogs are fed ^vith ashes and charcoal 
from wood and cobs, to supply them with more mineral 
matter. They even get much mineral matter from the 
soil itself. 

Analysis of Feeds. — The State laws of most States author- 
ize the agricultural experiment stations to take samples of 
feeds offered for sale within the State and make analyses of 
them. The reports of these analyses usually show the per 
cent of total dry matter and water, and the per cents of 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



331 



protein, carbohydrates, fat, and mineral matter (Fig. 208). 
Such reports are very valuable to all stock feeders, as the 
figures indicate as clearly as is possible the feeding value of 
each kind analyzed. Those feeds, rich or poor in any one 
ingredient, as protein, may be easily compared in the pub- 
lished tables. (See Appendix.) 

Feeds Changed Into Animal Tissues. — The object of 
feeding is to furnish material for supporting life, and for 
building up the animal body and the seciuring of some prod- 




FiG. 208. — The bottle at tlie ri^ht represents 100 ounces of shelled com. The 
five bottles at fne left represent the chemical composition of this corn as determined 
by analysis. The elements are as follows: starch, 80.35 ounces; protein, 10.92 
ounces; oil, 4.70 ounces; fiber, 2.60 ounces; ash, 1.43 ounces. 

uct, as milk from cows, eggs from hens, wool from sheep. 
Each of the four classes of compounds of the feed is of special 
use in the process. Any one alone, as starch or fat, is unable 
to completely nourish the body and maintain life. 

Animals are incapable of making very great changes in 
these feed compounds. Each is changed into similar animal 
products in the living animal by a series of processes called 
digestion, circulation, respiration, secretion, and assimilation. 

Loss in These Processes. — In these five processes of 
Hfe, digestion in particular, the substances contained in the 



332 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

feed are not all changed into animal products. Some of the 
feed is used to maintain or carry on the digestion. There is 
always a loss. Any material capable of building up tissue 
or of replacing this loss, in whole or in part, is valuable as 
feed for the animal. 

Nutrients. — Any single compound, like protein or fat, 
is called a nutrient. All feeds must contain nutrients. They 
must be palatable, so stock will like them. They should be 
largely digestible. Some of the feed each day must possess 
enough bulk to properly fill or distend the digestive organs. 

Roughage and Concentrates. — It is common to divide 
all animal feeds into two classes : coarse fodders or roughage, 
and concentrated feeds. By roughage is meant such bulky 
feeds as hay, cornstalks, straw, and green fodders. 

Concentrated feeds are the more highly nourishing mate- 
rials with less bulk. Ground or whole grains, peas, bran, 
middlings, and other mill products are concentrates. 

Hay. — Those forms of hay produced from the true 
grasses, as orchard grass, red top and timothy, are rich in 
carbohydrates and indigestible fiber, but contain very little 
protein. Hay made from alfalfa and clover is nearly as 
bulky, but much richer in protein than the others. 

The value of any hay depends upon the kind or variety, 
the condition at time of cutting, and the success in curing. 

Corn Stalks and Straw. — These are very bulky forms of 
roughage and are so rich in fiber that they are harder to 
digest than good hay. The nutritive matter that first existed 
in the growing crop has passed into the seeds, which have 
been removed. This leaves the straw poorer in both protein 
and carbohydrates. Corn grown for fodder, if the ears are 
not to be removed, should be cut as soon as the grain is well 
glazed. Racks for feeding corn fodder and straw are shown 
in Fig. 211. 

Green Forage Crops. — The growing of crops for green 
forage has been discussed in another chapter. Such feeds are 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 338 

watery in character. They contain, however, the same 
nutrients as the hay mad^ from them, if no loss occurs in 
making the hay. Their weight when green makes them 
difficult to handle. This disadvantage is balanced by the 
saving of all nutrients. Green fodders are more succulent 
and are liked better by stock. They are more easily digested 
than dry fodders, and contain more protein because of being 
cut at an earlier stage of growth. 

Grasses, growing corn, alfalfa, and other fodders when 
cut and fed green to stock are called soiling crops, as 
stated in Chapter X. Many of the best stock feed- 
ers are using such green feeds a great deal. It saves 
much in the way of pasture room. Several times as many 
cows can be fed from a certain field as could pasture well 
on it. The pasture system is too common to need any 
description. 

Ensilage. — Silos are made of various building materials, 
such as wood, brick, stone, and concrete (Figs. 80 and 209). 
They are made air tight and will preserve fodder corn or 
other gi-een feed in such condition as to retain most of the 
succulent qualities of the original product. Such feed is 
called ensilage. It is highly valued on dairy farms, where 
succulence in the daily feed is very important. Corn stalks 
with the ears still attached are cut when the grain is well 
glazed. The whole crop is run through a revolving cutter 
and the small pieces and leaves thrown or blown into the 
top of the tall silo (Fig. 209) The silos are usually round 
and are twelve to twenty feet in diameter. The depth is 
from twenty to forty feet. Small doors along one side allow 
the ensilage to be taken out easily during the winter months, 
or whenever it is being fed. 

Root Crops. — Mangels and beets are grown especially 
for cows, turnips for hogs and sheep, carrots for horses. But 
these and other root crops may be used for all kinds of farm 
animals. They are valuable as feed particularly when the 



334 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



other feed used is in the dry form. They all contain much 
water and are very succulent. Stock usually like them, and 
they are very digestible. The effect upon the animal system 
is very good. 

Concentrates from Grains. — Many of the concentrates 
in use are made from the grains of the cereals. The various 
products which they furnish are suited for all kinds of farm 




Fig. 209. — Amodpn ' 1 near end of dairy bam. The cutter and pipe through 

which cut corn is blown are in place to begin filling silo. 



animals. They are easily digested and nearly all are rich 
in the three groups of feed compounds, protein, carbohy- 
drates, and fats. 

Corn makes up more than half of the concentrate feeds 
used for animals in America. It is largely used for fattening 
hogs and beef animals, and for the feeding of work animals. 
It is rich in carbohydrates and oil, but contains very little 
mineral matter and less protein than the small grains. 
It is used in fattening stock. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 335 

Oats are commonly used as horse feed, particularly in the 
North. They are richer in protein than corn. For this 
reason they make better feed for horses than corn where 
timothy hay is used as roughage. 

By=Products and Mill Feeds. — Millers make flour from 
wheat, rye, barley, and buckwheat, and meal from corn and 
oats. Breakfast foods are made from all of these. In the 
making of these products for human use there are many 
parts of the grains not used; such are called hy-produds. 
They are all carefully saved and sold for the feeding of 
animals. Bran and middlings are common examples of these. 

There are also by-products from the manufacture of 
starch, glucose, sugar, beverages, oils, and even from the 
dressing and curing of meats. 

The term mill feeds may include also the ground grains, 
either mixed or singly. Corn, oats, and rye are often used in 
the ground form for stock. 

Bran. — The outer coats of wheat, removed in making 
flour, are called bran. Much of the protein of the grain is 
just beneath the outer coats or coverings of the grain and is 
kept with the bran during the milling process. There is a 
higher per cent of protein in wheat bran than in the wheat 
itself. The bran from corn is of little value and is 
seldom sold. 

Wheat Middlings. — The by-product from wheat called 
middlings is better than bran in its total amount of nutrients. 
It has as much protein, and is richer in starch. There is 
less fiber in middlings and this makes it better for hogs. 
Shorts is another name given to middlings. Sometimes mill 
sweepings and finely ground wastes are mixed with middlings 
and sold under the name of shorts. 

Gluten Meal. — ^When starch and glucose syrups are made 
from corn the by-product or remainder of the grain is ground 
up and sold under such names as gluten feed and gluten 
meal It has in it the protein, the oil, and the bran. It is 



336 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

very high in protein and is mixed with other concentrates 
for the feeding of dairy cows. 

Brewers' Grains. — These are the by-products from brew- 
eries and contain both the bran and the germs of barley. 
When dried and mixed with other concentrates they are very 
suitable for dairy cows. They are somewhat richer in pro- 
tein than wheat bran. Brewers' grains are sometimes fed 
while very wet. Cows like them in this condition if the grains 
are not allowed to spoil, which they are likely do do in 
warm weather. 

Beet Pulp. — After sugar is extracted from sugar-beets 
the shredded pulp is dried and shipped to all parts of the 
country for use as stock feed. It should be again wet and 
soaked for a few hours before feeding. Dairymen are now 
feeding beet pulp quite extensively as a winter succulence, 
substituting it wholly or in part for ensilage. Its chief 
nutrient is carbohydrate, there being little protein. 

Cottonseed Meal. — Cottonseed meal is one of the richest 
of the concentrates produced from plants for stock feed. 
It is the chief by-product from the cottonseed in the manu- 
facture of cottonseed oil. The hulls are usually first removed 
and the oil pressed out of the cottonseed. The remaining 
feed is ground into the form of meal, and fed to stock with 
grains or other concentrated feeds and with fodders. Cotton- 
seed meal is very rich in protein and has mere fat than most 
of the other grains. In feeding it to stock much care must 
be exercised, as when fed too heavily there is sometimes 
a poisonous effect. 

Linseed Meal. — This is frequently called oil-meal in the 
North, as cottonseed meal is less common there. It is a by- 
product from the manufacture of oil from flaxseed. The 
oil is chiefly used for paint. The meal is of two kinds, called 
old process and new process. In the old process the oil is 
pressed from the flaxseed and the remaining part is broken 
into small pieces or ground into meal for feed. In the new 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



337 



process the oil is more completely removed by the use of 
gasoline or ether. The difference in their feeding values is 
very slight, as both are rich in protein and show very little 
waste matter. 

Exercise. — Samples of By-Produds. — Get from local 
dealers a collection of samples of all the concentrated feeds 
they have. Put these in small bottles and label them. Write 
to the manufacturers for samples of the cottonseed products, 




Fio. 210. — A. Beef cattle are fattened with corn, fed in large, flat troughs. 
CExperiment Station, Kails.) 

B Calves in pasture. They are temporarily put in_ stanchions when fed 
with skim milk and ground feed. (Experiment Station, Kans.) 



corn products, and the linseed products. Local dealers will 
give you the addresses or get the samples for you. Get the 
names of feeds from the Appendix in making up the list for 
the school collection of samples. 

The Principles of Stock Feeding. — The feeding of animals 
to obtain the best results is one of the most difficult problems 
of the farmer or stockman. It involves a knowledge of the 
feeds used, how to properly balance the nutrients in the daily 



338 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

feed, the best waj^s of feeding these (Figs. 210 and 211), 
the needs of each class of animals, and a study of individual 
differences between animals of the same kind. 

Digestibility. — There are several factors which influence 
the digestibihty of feeds. (1) The less fiber present the 
easier they are to digest. (2) Concentrated feeds digest 
more perfectly than others. (3) Soft seed coats allow seeds 
to digest better than those with hard shells, if swallowed 
whole. (4) Digestion is aided by the grinding and crushing 
of feeds. (5) The early cutting of fodder and hay will aid. 
(6) If well cured and stored the feeds are more completely 
digested. (7) The kind or breed of animal using the feed has 
an influence. (8) Likewise the individuality and age of the 
animal have their influence. 




Fig. 211. — Outdoor feed -racks used for feeding flocks on the range. 

Relation of Feed to Purpose. — We have already learned 
that we must feed not only to maintain the weight and heat 
of the animal, but also to produce certain animal products 
or work. There are many kinds of products. The kind 
and amount of feed must be suited to the special purpose. 
The feeds must be rich in protein when the products 
desired contain much protein. Milk, eggs, lean meat, and 
wool are such products. The animal cannot produce anything 
containing protein without the use of protein in the feed. 

When the purposes are to build up fat or merely to 
maintain the body heat and weight, very little protein is 
required in ths feed. If too much protein is led to an 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 339 

animal when not yielding some protein-bearing product, 
much of it is wasted, and a portion of it may be transformed 
into fat. In the simple maintenance of life, carbohydrates 
and fat are largely fed. They produce the necessary heat 
and energy for such a purpose. For this reason much rough- 
age is fed to animals not at work in the winter time. Timothy 
hay, straw and stalks, with perhaps a little corn grain, are 
enough for the simple maintenance of cattle and horses. 
For a gain in fat these same feeds are used in larger quan- 
tities. Very little protein is then needed. 

In the building of bone, muscle, and other animal tissues, 
as in the growth of young animals, considerable amounts 
of protein and mineral matter are used by the body. It is 
then necessary to use in the daily ration those feeds that 
have been mentioned as being rich in protein. 

Feeding Young Animals. — When a stockman desires a 
profit from the increase in the gain in weight he will feed 
young animals instead of old ones. Their natural growth is 
a factor in his favor. Young animals bring better prices in 
the markets. The thoughtful farmer will fatten lambs and 
pigs rather than old sheep and hogs. The practice of 
fattening hahy beef is now more common than the old way 
of keeping beef cattle for several years. 

Feeding Standards. — Scientific men have carefully figured 
the exact amounts of each nutrient required by the animal's 
body. The results of their work are called feeding standards. 
Wolff and Lehmann are two German experimenters who have 
published standards for stockmen to follow. There are fixed 
standards for each kind of animal and for each purpose of 
feeding. For example, a thousand-pound cow giving twenty- 
two pounds (about eleven quarts) of milk daily is to be given 
such an amount of feed as to equal 29 pounds of dry matter, 
2.5 protein, 14.1 carbohydrates and fat combined. The 
feeding standards commonly used are given in the Appendix. 
In order to obtain the proper amounts of each of the nutrients 



340 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

to meet the standards it is often necessary for the farmer to 
sell some grain, such as corn, and to purchase others of dif- 
ferent composition. 

Balanced Rations. — When the nutrients are in the proper 
amounts to meet the requirements of the feeding standard 
the ration is said to be a balanced ration. If they are not in 
the right proportion it is called unbalanced. Very few natural 
feeds conform closely to the standards given for the various 
purposes of feeding. They must be combined with other 
feeds in such a way as to balance the daily ration. 

Nutritive Ratios. — The amount of protein in any feed 
compared with the other nutrients is called the nutritive 
ratio. For example, there are about three pounds of protein 
and six of other nutrients in one hundred pounds of skim 
milk. Dividing the six by three (6^3 = 2) the ratio is found 
to be two. It is expressed thus — 1 : 2. The nutritive ratios 
are given in the feeding table in the Appendix. 

In calculating these ratios the fat is not added directly 
to the carbohydrates, but it is first multiplied by two and 
one-fourth and then added. This is done for the reason that 
fat in any feed is two and one-fourth times as valuable as 
carbohydrate in the producing of heat and fat. 

To make this clear, the ratio for alfalfa hay may be 
figured. The digestible nutrients in one hundred pounds of 
alfalfa are : 1 . 2 pounds of fat, 39 . 6 pounds of carbohydrates, 
and 11 pounds of protein. 

1.2X2^=2.7 (fat equivalent to c.h.). 

2 . 7 + 39 . 6 = 42 . 3 (total nutrients not protein). 

42 . 3 -M 1 = 3 . 84 (ratio, expressed 1 : 3 . 84) . 

Comparison of Clover with the Standard. — Red clover 

hay is very nearly a balanced feed for dairy cows giving 
twenty-two pounds of milk daily. It comes as near the feed- 
ing standard for such a purpose as any one feed can without 
mixing with other feeds. Feeding a great amount of any 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 341 

one feed is not advisable, as all animals want a little variety. 

Drv T),„+„:„ C. H. Nutritive 

Matter i^rotein and Fat Ratio 

Standard for 1000-lb. cow 

giving 22 lbs. milk 29. 2.5 14.1 1:5.6 

Nutrients in 35 lbs. red 

clover hay 29.64 2.38 13.86 1:5.8 

Thirty-five pounds of clover hay give a little too much 
dry matter and not quite enough of either class of nutrients. 
The ratio is a little too wide. A ratio that is greater than 
that given in the standard is said to be too wide ; if too small 
it is too narrow. Alfalfa hay has too narrow a ratio (1:3.8) 
for dairy cows when fed alone. Corn with cobs (1:15.1) 
is too wide for this purpose. The two can be combined in 
such a way as to make a ration very close to the standard, 
as shown below : 

Drv p.„t„:„ C. H. Nutritive 

Matter i^i^otem and Fat Ratio 

21 lbs. alfalfa hay 19.65 2.46 9.05 

10 lbs. corn-and-cob meal 8.49 .44 6.55 

Total 28.14 2.90 15.70 1:541 

Standard 29. 2.5 14 1 1:5.56 

It will be seen that if the dairyman feeds twenty-one 
pounds of alfalfa hay and ten pounds of corn-and-cob meal 
the ration is close to the standard; both columns of nutrients 
are a little too high, but the dry matter is a little under the 
standard. It should be remembered that these two feeds are 
both easily produced on the farm and no money is then paid 
out for feed. 

What Stock Like. — It is necessary that a feeder select 
or provide feeds that are liked by the stock. If certain 
feeds are not palatable to the animals, the best results are 
not secured. It is also necessary to avoid too much indi- 
gestible matter. The coarser forms of roughage, such as corn 
fodder, should be run through a cutter, and the hard grains 
are liked better when they are ground. Animals which chew 
their cud, called ruminating animals, as the cow and sheep, 
like more roughage than hogs. All animals like a change 



342 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

of feed, and a little variety in the ration. It should be 
changed gradually and not all at once. 

Exercise. — Palatability of Feeds. — Let the older pupils 
report as to which of the following feeds are liked best by 
stock: clover, alfalfa or timothy hay by cows; turnips or car- 
rots by horses; bright clean corn or mouldy corn by horses. 

Problems. — 1. What is the cost of protein per pound in 
clover hay containing 6 per cent protein when the hay is 
valued at $10 per ton? 

2. What is the cost of protein in timothy hay contain- 
ing 3 per cent protein when the hay is worth $18 per ton? 

3. Which hay is better for dairy cows? 

Buying Feeds. — ^A farmer often finds it very advisable 
to sell some of the wheat or other grain and buy instead 
mill feeds and other by-products. It is well to select those 
mill feeds which are rich in protein to mix with the farm 
roughage and corn. This will make it easier to balance the 
rations for the different kinds of stock. 

Some roughage may be sold or exchanged for the desired 
concentrates. Timothy hay brings a good price in the mar- 
kets, but is very poor form of roughage hay to keep on the 
farm to feed to dairy cows. Clover hay is far better for cows 
and yet the market price is much lower. 

In deciding which feeds to purchase it is well to decide the 
cost per pound of protein contained in each feed considered. 

Problem. — Figure the cost per pound of protein in each 
of the following concentrates when the prices per ton are 
as follows: Cottonseed meal, $33; linseed meal, old proc- 
ess, $32; brewers' grains, dry, $27; wheat bran, $25; wheat 
middlings, $30; cornmeal, $32. (See the protein contents 
Table of Feeds in the Appendix.) 

Fertilizing value of feeds is a thing to be considered in all 
feeds. When farmers buy feeds they may well consider that 
they are buying fertility for the farm. It is usually better 
to buy mill feeds for farm stock than to buy commercial 
fertilizers. Such feeds are often rich in available organic 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 343 

nitrogen; and the minerals, phosphate and potash, are more 
or less abundant. How much of this fertility reaches the 
soil will always depend upon the care and use of the manure 
from the barns 

REVIEW 

1. Of what is the solid part of an animal's body composed ? 

2. Tell about how much of the body is water. 

3. Name three or four common forms of protein. 

4. Give the four classes of nutrients needed by animals, besides water. 

5. Name some of the common feeds rich in protein. 

6. What substances are included by the group termed "carbohy- 
drates?" 

7. Name some feeds rich in starch. 

8. Mention three different kinds of sugar and the sources of each. 

9. Name the five animal processes necessary in changing feed to 
animal tissue. 

10. Give examples of feeds classed as roughage. 

11. Give several examples of feeds classed as concentrates. 

12. Give some examples of crops suitable for being fed green in 
summer when pastures are poor. 

13. Name three feeds suitable for winter succulence. 

14. How is ensilage made ? What is a silo ? 

15. Tell what you can about bran; middlings. 

16. Discuss the character of gluten meal. From what is it made ? 

17. Tell how cottonseed meal is made. 

18. Distinguish between "old process" and "new process" oil meal. 
Which is richer in oil ? 

19. Tell what things influence the digestibility of feeds. 

20. Give two objects of feeding. 

21. What is the sole source of an animal's protein ? 

22. Name the classes of nutrients that may cause the formation of 
fat in the animal body. 

23. Why is it more profitable to feed young animals than old ones 
if we are o sell them by weight ? 

24. Give the weights of the several nutrients for a 1000-pound cow 
giving milk. 

25. Of what use are feeding standards ? 

26. What is meant by a nutritive ratio of 1 to 6 ? 

27. Give the meaning of wide ratio and of narrow ratio. 

28. Why use feeds which animals crave, rather than feeds they dislike? 

29. Why do farmers need to buy mill feeds to use with* farm feeds? 

30. V\'hy is it better to buy mill feeds than it is to buy commercial 
fertilizers ? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 411, Feeding Hogs in the 
South: .588, Cattle Feeding in Corn Belt: 655, Cottonseed JVIeal for 
Beef Cattle; 087, Ferns in Pastures; 720, Poisonous Plants; 743, The 
Feeding of JDairy Cows; 777, Feeding Dairy Calves. 



23 



PART III. 
ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 



CHAPTER XXX. 
CATTLE PRODUCTS. 

The most important products from cattle are beef, veal, 
milk, cream, butter, and cheese. Other minor products and 
by-products are skim milk, buttermilk, whey, hides for 
leather, hair for plaster, hoofs and horns for glue, blood and 
bones and other parts for fertilizers. Small useful articles, 
as buttons, knife handles, and others are made from bones 
and horns. 

Cuts of Beef. — The beef type of cattle bring the highest 
prices per pound. This is true when sold either by live weight 
or as dressed meat. This type also gives a higher percentage 
of dressed beef than the carcass of the dairy animal. The 
carcass of the beef animal has a better percentage of weight 
in the high-priced cuts of meat than the others. The quality 
of meat is far better in an animal bred for beef than in a dairy 
cow. Figure 212 gives the names of the different cuts of beef 
as used by butchers and buyers. The retail prices given are 
relative, not actual. 

Products of the Dairy. — In the wild or primitive condition 
cows gave milk only for their calves. They have since 
acquired the character of giving much more than that, and 
now milk has become a standard article of food for man. 

Milk as Food. — Milk is one of the most perfect forms 
of food used by human beings. It is easily digested and 
contains the nutrients in proper proportion to supply the 
needs of the body. 
844. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 



345 



In 100 pounds of milk these parts are in about this pro- 
portion : 

Water 87 . pounds 

Fat 4 . pounds 

Casein and albumen (protein) 3.3 pounds 

Sugar (carbohydrates) 5 . pounds 

Mineral matter 0.7 pounds 

Total 100. pounds 

Fats in Milk are of several kinds, which fall into three 
groupr,: (1) The volatile or easily evaporated fats. (2) The 
fats that are in liquid form at ordinary temperature. 




Fig. 21:;. — The cuts of a beef animal, gl\-in? the relative prices and weii^bts. 

(3) The fats that are in solid form at ordinary temperature. 
Some of the volatile fats may be allowed to escape by airing 
the milk or cream. If they are not thus removed they soon 
break up into forms which give bitter flavors to the milk or 
cream. The airing process should be done in a clean room 
where the air is pure and free from dust. 

The fats in milk are lighter than the other parts and 
readily rise to the top ; but in so doing they take with them 
certain other parts which compose the cream. 

Casein is the chief protein in milk. It is the important 
ingredient found in cheese, which is familiar to all. There 



S46 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

is always a little albumen present. It is similar to the white 
of raw egg. The casein is the main tissue-forming part of 
the milk when used as food. 

Milk sugar is the heat-producing part of milk when used 
as food. When milk sours it is due to the action of bacteria 
which changes the sugar into an acid, called lactic acid. 

The mineral matter in milk is made up of the same minerals 
required by the bones and other body tissues. They are 
very beneficial when milk is used as human food. When 
milk is pasteurized by heating, it loses much of the mineral 
value and is no longer a suitable food for growing children. 
The bones are apt to be too soft when such milk is used 
regularly. 

Composition Varies Naturally. — The milk from dairy 
animals varies in its composition from several causes. The 
main factors are given below : 

1. Breed of animal; as Jerseys have more fat in the milk 
than Holsteins. 

2. Period of lactation; the milk being richer in fat just 
before a cow dries up. 

3. Different parts of same milking; the first is poor in 
fat, the last is rich. 

4. Kinds of feed; this influences quantity of milk chiefly; 
but the character of butter fat is influenced by feed; for 
example, cottonseed meal makes the fat harder than does 
linseed meal. 

Exercise. — Difference in Milk. — Have one of the pupils 
or a farmer save in two separate bottles some of the first 
of the morning's milking and some of the strippings from 
the same cow. One-fourth pint of each will be enough. 
These two bottles may be kept in a cool place fo^* a day 
until the cream has all risen. The difference w\\\ then be 
shown by measuring the thickness of the layer of cream in 
each bottle. It is not a bad plan to use the first pint of each 
milking for pigs or calves instead of for human food. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 347 

Exercise. — Bad Flavor in Milk. — Some farmer's son 
may be able to tell the class some of his own experience in 
getting bitter milk when cows have been in weedy pastures 
when the grass is poor. 

Cabbages, wet brewers' grains, and spoiled ensilage may 
flavor the milk if fed only a few hours before milking. To 
avoid such bad effects from those feeds, if used at all, they 
should be fed to the cows when their udders are empty, 
just after milking. 

Exercise. — Composition of Milk. — Prepare a set of bot- 
tles containing the proper amounts of different materials to 
show approximately the composition of one pint of milk. 
Preserve these with a few drope of formalin in each. Use 
the following: 

14 oz. water in a pint bottle. 

j4 oz. melted butter in /^ oz. vial. 

^ oz. cheese (protein) in ^ oz. vial. 

Ji oz. milk sugar in 1 oz. bottle. 

}i oz. salt (mineral matter) in smallest vial. 

These should be neatly labelled and kept for future reference. 
The set will resemble Figure 208. 

Difficulty in Obtaining Pure Milk. — ^Healthy milk cows 
naturally produce a pure product, but much of the milk 
used for food is not as pure as it should be. There are many 
chances for the milk to become dirty or infested with bac- 
teria before it is used. Careless and improper methods in 
barns or on the part of those who handle the milk before and 
after it reaches the home are the chief causes of impure milk. 
Milk may be kept pure and free from harmful contamination. 
Poor and unclean milk should not be used for food. 

Bacteria in Milk. — The bacteria in milk are classed as 
either good or bad. Those which cause milk to sour are 
useful when the milk or cream is to be used for making 
butter or cheese. There are many bad forms of bacteria 



348 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



which will produce bad flavors in milk and its products. 
Milk is a substance very favorable to the rapid development 
of both classes of bacteria. These multiply very rapidly 
if the milk is kept warm. There are many ways in which 
bacteria find their way into milk. Some of these are from 
the coats or hairs of the cows, from the dirty hands and 
clothing of milkers, from flies that fall in, from dirty pails, 
cans, strainers, bottles or other utensils, from dust or other im- 
purities in the air of barns, milk-rooms, and homes (Fig. 213). 



Fig. 213 B. 




Fig. 213A. — Dark. Bad construction. Difficult to keep clean. 
Fio. 213 B. — Good construction. Smooth floor, walls, and ceiling, plenty of 
light, easy to keep clean. (Animal Industry.) 



Pure Milk. — Milk of a healthy cow contains no germs 
while forming in the udder. They get into the milk in the 
ways mentioned in the last paragraph. By pure milk is 
meant the properly-handled product of healthy cows. 

To keep dirt and bacteria out of the milk the barns should 
be kept clean. This is made possible only by having the 
floors, walls, and ceilings smooth and tight (Fig. 214). 

Direct sunlight through large south windows will help 
to destroy many bacteria in barns (Fig. 214). 

The air must be free from dust at the time of milking. 
Feeding should be done after milking instead of before. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 



The barn should be properly ventilated to remove bad 
odors, bad air, dust particles, and bacteria. The ventilation 
must be ample and yet free from drafts of air. There are 
two good systems in use. One consists of muslin cloth 
screens placed in several of the open windows. The other 
is the King ventilation system, which draws the foul air out 
from near the floor, through a long shaft or chimney (Fig. 
215). This is the best system for winter ventilation of build- 
ings. 




Fig. 214. — A small but clean dairy bam. (Animal Industry.) 



The cows must be clean if pure milk is to be produced for 
food. Milk always becomes dirty if the cows are dirty. 
The udders and surrounding parts should be washed if 
filthy; and the dust and loose hairs must be removed just 
before milking, by the use of a damp cloth. 

The milker must be healthy, and must have clean hands 
and clean clothes. 

Milk pails should have small tops because they catch 
less dirt. The pails with good hoods shoAvn in Fig. 216 will 
keep out the most dirt. 

All milk utensils must be washed well and then always 



350 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



scalded thoroughly with boiling water to kill the bacteria, 
This is called sterilizing them. 




Fig. 215. — King system of ventilation for dairy bams. The air outlet should 
start near the floor and extend through tlie roof. The inlet for air into the stable 
is near the ceiling, but should start outside well above the ground, Windows are 
for light, not for ventilation, when the King system is in use. 




Fig. 216. — Five styles of milk pails, intended to reduce the amount of dirt in 
milk which falls in from cows and from milkers. Which do you consider the best 
form for tliis purpose? 

Cooling and Airing. — As soon as milk is drawn from the 
udder it should be taken to a clean place and thoroughly- 
aired and cooled The temperature should be lowered quickly 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 



351 



to 50° F. or below. This will check the multiplication of 
bacteria that would spoil the milk (Figs. 217, 218). 

Exercise. — Temperature and Souring. — Get two bottles 
of milk, both fresh. Set one in a cool place where it will not 
quite freeze. Sei: the other in a warm room. Notice the 
difference in time it will take to sour the two bottles of milk. 
These samples may be tasted for sourness and also tested 
with blue litmus paper. 



FiQ. 217. 



FiQ. .^IS. 




Fig. 217. — Milk bottles with crushed ice in shipping box. 
Fig. 218. — Delivery of milk to city houses. 



Bottling Milk and Cream. — Milk and cream to be deliv- 
ered directly to the users should be put into sterilized bottles, 
which are kept covered and cold until the milk is used in 
the home. The old way of delivering milk from cans which 
were opened in the streets to take out the milk for each cus- 
tomer, allowed dust and all kinds of city bacteria to get into 
the milk. Simple machines are used by which milk and 
cream may be put into bottles very rapidly with little hand- 
ling (Fig. 219). 

Special Forms of Market Milk. — There are laws or certain 
regulations in many places which require that milk shall be 
of a certain quality or standard. 



352 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Legal milk usually containsthree percent of fat andnot less 
than twelve per cent of total solids, which includes every- 
thing but the water. This is the most common form of milk 
delivered to consumers, and to butter and cheese factories. 

Milk is also standardized by certain producers of milk for 
special markets. A certain dairyman may produce milk for 
his customers which will always have any desired percentage 
of butter fat. This is done by mixing rich milk or cream with 
poor milk in such amoimts as to give the desired results. 



Fig. 219. — Milk bottled for the retail market. The machine at the left fills eight 
bottles at once and is then moved to the next row. 

Certified milk is that which meets the requirements of 
milk commissioners, as to purity and safety. The barns, 
milk-rooms, methods of handling and delivering are all 
inspected by experts, and certificates are issued to all dairy- 
men who meet the requirements of the milk commissioner. 

Condensed milk is now extensively canned and shipped 
for use in many pla.es. Much of the water is removed by 
evaporation. Sometimes sugar is added. It will keep a long 
time while sealed, and is used by armies in the field, on board 
ships at sea, in mining camps, and is becoming more popular 
in cities. 

Powdered milk is a newer and less common form of market 
milk. Some of the fat is usually first removed, and then the 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 353 

milk is evaporated to dryness without burning. Before being 
used it is mixed with water. 

Modified milk is prepared for use of infants and invalids, 
by increasing or decreasing one or more of the parts of the 
milk, to suit special cases. 

Fermented milk and ripened milk are made from skim 
milk or from whole milk. The proper bacteria are added to 
Cause the souring and thickening of the milk, as cream is 
ripened for churning. When ready for use it is somewhat 
similar to buttermilk. 

Creaming.— There are three common methods of obtain- 
ing the cream from milk. (1) The shallow pan method is 
the oldest and most common. (2) The deep can method is 
sometimes used when much milk is to be handled. The 
large cans of milk are kept in cold water until the cream 
rises. The skim milk is drawn off through a faucet at the 
bottom. (3) The modern centrifugal bowl separator is the 
only quick way of removing the cream from milk (Figs. 
220, 221). In all types of these machines the milk flows into 
a rapidly whirling metal bowl. The speed is very great, 
and the skim milk, being heavier, is thrown to the outer edge 
and runs out. The cream overflows near the centre of the 
bowl. 

Ripening Cream for Churning. — As soon as cream is 
separated from the milk it must be cooled and kept cold 
until about twelve hours before it is to be churned into 
butter. It is then warmed to a temperature at which the 
bacteria will grow to make it sour. This may be 60° to 
75° F. It will sour faster when warmer, but will not make so 
good butter. At churning time the temperature should be 
about 58° in the summer and 60° or 62° in the Avinter. 
Ripened cream should be slightly sour to the taste and pour 
as a thick, smooth, glossy liquid, free from lumps or curds. 
When ready to churn, it should be poured through a strainer 
to remove any curds that might be present. 



354 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Steps in Churning. — 1. Put the cream into the churn 
and add a Httle vegetable butter-color. 

2. Operate the churn steadily and slowly to cause the 
globules to be affected by the dashing movement. 

3. Stop the churning when the granules are the size of 
large grains of wheat or peas. 

4. Strain the buttermilk out, leaving the butter in the 
churn as loose and open as possible. 



Fig. 220. 



Fig. 221. 




Fig. 220. — A modem hand separator. Cream separators of small size are used 
on dairy farms where cream or butter is sold. 

Fig. 221. — School pupils learning to operate a cream separator. (A. E.) 



5. Wash the butter with cold water twice, by pouring 
it on and draining it off. Use as much cold water each time 
as half the amount of the buttermilk. 

6. Sprinkle over the loose butter enough salt to suit the 
taste. One ounce of salt to a pound of butter suits the usual 
market. 

7. Work the butter in large masses, but not enough to 
give it a smeared or greasy appearance. 

8. Mold or pack to suit the market requirements, as in 
pound molds covered with parchment paper. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 355 

Cheese. — ^Whole milk cheese is very nutritious as a food 
and the use of it has greatly increased in recent years. It 
is rich in both casein and fat. There are many kinds of 
cheese sold in the markets, but the steps in making the vari- 
ous kinds are similar. These steps are: (1) The coagulation 
of the casein, with or without a special material, called 
rennet; (2) the removal of the whey; (3) salting; (4) pressing; 
and (5) ripening. 

Dairy Records. — Records should be kept of the milk 
produced by each cow so that the owner may know which 
ones are paying best. The profits from each cow cannot be 
determined unless a record is kept of the daily flow of milk. 
If the milk is used for m.aking butter or cheese, the records 
should then also show the richness of the milk from each 
cow. The milk of each cow should be frequently weighed 
and a sample of it tested for butter fat. If the weighing 
is done one day each week, for three weeks of the month, an 
approximate record of the amount of milk given each month 
may be easily determined. It is better to weigh the milk 
each time just after it is drawn from each cow. Samples for 
testing should be taken after the milk is poured into another 
vessel, as this mixes the milk, and a truer sample is obtained. 
The samples are easily preserved, until time for testing, by 
the use of special poison tablets made for the purpose. Cows 
which do not yield good profits should not be kept. Many 
do not pay their board. 

Keeping the dairy record is made easy bj' having a good 
spring balance hanging near the record sheet in the barn 
(Fig. 222). 

The Babcock Test. — The method of testing milk for 
determining the amount of fat was devised by Dr. S. M. 
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. It is very 
simple and gives accurate results. A set of the apparatus 
used in this test is shown in Fig. 223. 

Exercise. — Testing Milk and Cream. — Some one near 
the school, who has a Babcock test outfit, may be invited 



356 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



to bring it before the class and give a lesson in testing sam- 
ples of milk and cream. Or perhaps it will be as well for the 
class to take a trip to a near-by creamery and observe the 
operation. If possible the school should own an outfit. 
The students could then test samples of milk from the cows 
of the neighborhood. 

Exercise. — Skim Milk and Buttermilk. — Samples of skim 
milk from two or more separators should be tested to deter- 





1 1 


J 


!! IDI 



Fio. 222. — The weight of each cow's milk is written on the record sheet. 

mine which one removes the cream the best. If butter- 
milk is tested, this will tell how well the churning has removed 
the butter. 

Principles of the Babcock Test.— The testing of milk by 
this method is founded on the fact that very strong acid will 
dissolve all the substances in the milk except the butter fat. 
The particles of fat are thus set free from the rest. As the 
fat is the lightest part of the milk, it will rise to the top. 
This takes place in a few minutes if the bottles of milk are 
placed in a whirling machine (centrifugal). In other words, 
the heavier parts of the milk are thrown to the bottom. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 857 

In making the test a definite, or measured, amount of 
milk is put into a bottle with a long, narrow neck and just 
enough acid is mixed with this to set free the fat. After the 
fat is brought to the top by the whirling force, some hot water 
is added to fill the bottle up to the neck. A second whirhng 
brings the fat above this water. A little water is again added 
to float the fat up even with the scale on the neck of the 
bottle. The third whirling gathers all the fat together in 
the neck of the bottle so that the length of the column of 




FiQ. 223. — Glass-ware and machine for making Babcock test for butter fat in 
milk, cream, and skim milk. (Experiment Station, Wis.) 



the fat may be read on the scale. The neck must have been 
correctly scaled, to give the result in percentage of the 
amount of milk first put into the bottle. Thus if the fat 
fills four full spaces of the neck of the bottle, the milk is 
four per cent fat. 

Details of the Test. — Sampling. — Shake or otherwise 
mix the samples to be tested just before beginning the work. 
It must not be hot nor very cold. Measure out 17.6 cc. 
(cubic centimeters) by drawing milk into the long pipette 
(Fig. 223, P), just up to the mark. Suck the milk into the 
pipette with the mouth; put a finger over the top and let 
enough drip out until the top is exactly even with the mark. 



358 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Let this milk flow gently down the long neck into the 
test bottle, M. Do not spill any. Blow in the last drop. 
The steps thus far are the most particular and should be 
practised with water a few times or until the work can be 
done well. Always make the test in duplicate to avoid 
error, using two bottles. 

Adding the Acid must be done carefully. Be ready to 
wash up any spilled acid quickly, as its burns are serious. 
Use water freely and add soap or soda if needed. The acid 
is measured up to the 17.5 cc. mark, in the little cylinder 
or acid measure, A. Pour it into the milk sample in the test 
bottle, holding the bottle in a slanting position to let the 
acid pass by the outgoing air. 

Mixing the milk and acid is now done by holding the 
bottle by the neck and giving it a circular motion for a few 
minutes. Do not point the mouth towards yourself nor 
any one else. Mix until the contents are dark colored 
throughout. The action of the acid makes it very hot. 

Whirling. — Place the test bottles in the whirling machine 
in pairs, directly opposite each other, to perfectly balance 
the machine. The speed to run the machine depends on its 
diameter and is usually marked on the machine. Run it 
five minutes. Stop and add hot water to fill each test bottle 
up to the bottom of the neck. Whirl two minutes. Add 
hot water to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of the 
scale (graduation) on the neck. Whirl one minute. During 
all the whirling and the reading the test bottles must be 
kept hot by putting hot water into the machine under the 
bottles. 

Reading the Residt. — Take the bottle by the top of the 
neck and hold the scale level with the eye. Read the marks 
at the extreme top and bottom of the fat. The difference 
between these is the percentage of fat in the sample. For 
example, if the bottom reads 3 . 2 and the top reads 7 . 4 the 
percentage of butter fat would be the difference, or 4.2. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 359 

This percentage, 4.2, of fat in the milk would mean that 
there are 4.2 pounds of fat in 100 pounds of milk. The 
glassware must be kept elean so that the test and the reading 
will be accurate. 

Skim Milk and Buttermilk are tested in special bottles 
having double necks (S, Fig. 223) . 

Cream is tested in bottles with extra large necks (C), 
because there is so much fat in it. The sample taken is 
weighed instead of measured. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give two reasons why the beef type of animals is preferable 
for beef. 

2. Name three of the highest priced cuts of meat. 

3. Why is milk considered a complete food for young animals? 

4. Tell what you can of the composition of butter fat. 

5. What is meant by volatile fat ? 

6. Why should volatile fats be allowed to escape from milk when 
freshly drawn from the cow? 

7. What per cent of average milk is water ? Name the other sub- 
stances in the order of their greatest abundance. 

8. What are the usual differences in composition of milk drawn at 
different times ? 

9. At which part of the milk period is milk the richest ? 

10. Tell of the influence of feed on the character of butter fat in 
milk. 

11. Tell of the different effects of good and bad bacteria in milk. 

12. How can clean methods in barns help to keep bacteria out ol 
milk 

13. Mention six ways in which bacteria may get into milk. 

14. Describe the King system of taking foul air out of the bam. 

15. What are the;best forms of milk pails ? 

16. Tell how to sterilize milk utensils. 

17. Describe the conditions for ripening milk. 

18. Give the steps in making good butter. 

19. Why should dairymen keep records of individual cows? 

20. How is this done ? Why should the milk of each cow be tested ? 

21. Of what use is the Babcock test outfit ? 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 363, Care of Milk and Its 
Use in the Home; 473, Tuberculosis; 480, Disinfecting Stables; 487, 
Cheese; 490, Bacteria in Milk; 540, Stable Flv; 541. Buttermaking; 
580, Beef Production; 608, Garlic Flower; 623, Ice on Dairy Farm; 089, 
Dairy House; 748, Dairy Sterilizer; 784, Anthrax; 790, Abortion. 



24 



PART IV. 
FARM MANAGEMENT. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 
THE BUSINESS OF FARMING. 

Changes in Farming. — Young men and, indeed, older 
people who live in the city of to-day scarcely realize the 
great change that is taking place in American country life 
and the farmer's business. In fact, so many new principles 
are being introduced that persons who have been off the 
farm only a few years have no idea of the modern ways of 
doing things by up-to-date methods. To be sure, there are 
some things which have not changed, but there have been 
radical changes along the lines which concern and affect the 
financial side of the bur-iness. 

Some Causes. — Most of these changes have been brought 
about through the instruction along advanced lines given 
by State agricultural colleges; by the farmers' institutes; 
in bulletins from the State experiment stations and the 
United States Department of Agriculture, and, as a corollary 
of all this, the improvement of farm papers and magazines. 
The United States Government does more to advance the 
interests of agriculture than is done for other lines of edu- 
cation by the four largest universities in America. Many 
legislative changes have been made tending toward the 
improvement of the rural classes. The increase in American 
export trade has done much to advance the price of farm 
produce. 

As prices for land advance and competition increases, it 
becomes necessary to adopt the most modern methods of 
360 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 361 

farming in order that the profits may be reaped from smaller 
areas. The invention of machinery has played an important 
part in the introduction of new methods. 

The results of these changes are only just beginning to 
be realized. Many may think that fewer people will be 
needed upon the farms. The very opposite is true. But 
instead of the farmer of the future being an uneducated per- 
son, he is coming to be well prepared for his new calling. 

The Best Men Needed. — The farm demands men who 
are prepared for their chosen work. Men with the best 
brains are wanted on the farm. The time is rapidly drawing 
near when no occupation can be found which will demand 
a better preparation than farming. A wide knowledge of 
science; a thorough understanding of basic principles of 
plant and animal life; a constant acquaintance with the 
world's market quotations and how to interpret them; a 
clear insight into reasons underlying all farm operations; 
a close attention to all details of the business; a steadiness 
in all matters pertaining to the operations of the farm; 
courage to act, and act quickly, at the proper time; good 
physical strength and power of endurance; — these are some 
of the qualities demanded of the farmer by the farm of to- 
morrow. Already we hear the call for such men. 

Some Contrasts. — Take a ride across any agricultural 
section of America in the fall and you will find many of the 
cornfields remain uncut. Some few farmers have learned 
that the corn stalks contain forty per cent of the crop, and 
are careful to utilize it. 

A certain man was seen applying barn-yard manure to 
recently drained swamp land when already the place was 
too full of unrotted vegetable matter to produce its best 
crops; his neighbors spread manure on the poorer soils of 
the uplands. 

Many dairymen are keeping dairy cows which do not 
pay more than five dollars each over the cost of keeping them 



362 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

each year; while others clear fifty dollars or more a year from 
each cow above the cost of feed and labor. 

Farmer "A" will be deluded by the false belief that the 
creamery separators will kill germs of tuberculosis and thus 
prevent that disease from spreading from one herd to others 
in the neighborhood. "B" will investigate the matter, and 
if neighboring cattle are thought to have the disease 
he will promptly stop taking skim milk from the butter 
factory. He will retain his own herd's pure skim milk on his 
place and sell cream only. 

System in Farming. — In all parts of the country farmers 
need to put more business and system into their farming. 
Too little system is the chief cause of failure in many in- 
stances. On farms that are successful more system could be 
introduced with profit. No other calling of man could with- 
stand the lack of system which is often found in farming. 

Mapping the Farm. — Begin by mapping out the farm. 
It is not necessary to employ a surveyor. First make a rough 
sketch of the outline of the fields as they now exist. State 
the area of each field or division as nearly as possible. With 
this sketch as a basis to work from, then measure the real 
length of each line represented on the chart. A man and 
a boy with a tape line fifty or one hundred feet long will 
be able to measure all the lines in a few hours. Write the 
lengths on the chart. 

Now you are ready make a corrected map. With a foot 
rule or yard measure, a large sheet of paper and a pencil, you 
can make a map with tru« proportions very easily. Previous 
work in map drawing will aid in getting directions of lines. 
Of course a scale must be established, say one inch on the map 
to five hundred feet on the land. After the map is drawn 
it will be easier to calculate the true area of each field. 

Planning the Crops. — On each division or field we should 
next write the name of the crop or crops which that field 
produced last year, as "Oats followed by clover." Then 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 363 

establish the rotation that each field is to follow for several 
years. Several rotations of crops are suggested in the chapter 
on Systems of Cropping. Let each field on the map be 
marked with the main crops it is to grow for several 
years. 

Dairy farms will be planned to produce plenty of green 
and dry forage, as well as some root crops, grain, and corn. 
During the long winter evenings a farmer and his family 
should sketch the farm and plan the special crops for the 
following season on each field. 

Exercise. — Mapping School Grounds. — Let the whole 
class, or those who have the most time to spare from other 
work, measure the school grounds and make maps of it on 
large paper. Each line should be marked with the length 
it represents on the ground. The scale on a map is always 
given for a map in a geography. Let the scale for this map 
be as large as the paper will accommodate. Try one inch 
to four feet for a very small place, or one inch to 100 feet 
for a large place. Figure 101 suggests a good plan for 
school grounds with a school garden. 

Elements of Business Success. — Farmers should keep 
records and accounts. This is one of the commonest reasons 
for the great success of certain farmers as compared with 
others who seem to farm by the same methods. The farmer 
who keeps clear and simple accounts always knows his 
business, and can stop the losses that occur. He should keep 
records of all agreements with men and thus avoid many 
disputes or law suits. Records regarding crops or stock will 
help to bring about the best financial results. 

A memorandum book should be kept in which are written 
the dates of the first killing frosts each fall; the dates of the 
opening of fruit buds in spring; the dates of bad spring freezes; 
the birth of all kinds of live stock; the dates when each field 
is sown and harvested; and many other important events of 
the year. 



364 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Keeping Farm Accounts. — All farm accounts should be 
so simple as to require very little time in keeping them. They 
should also be easily referred to, and give the desired infor- 
mation in a few moments. What is known as a single entry 
s.ystem is easy to understand and requires little time. When 
a calf is sold for cash the entry is made on that date in the 
cash account, "Calf sold, $10.00." 

The "Column System" is still more simple, but requires 
•a special ruling for the purpose. Any book with a number 
of money columns will be easily adapted to farm purposes. 



isfe: 



Fig. 224. — The column .system of keeping farm accounts. 



The pages are wide and the names of accounts are written 
at the tops of the narrow columns. The left-hand page is 
for the sales and receipts, and the right for expenses or 
Durchases. The photograph of the open page is shown in 
Fig. 224. Down both sides the dates are written or printed, 
one line being used for each day of the month. The two 
pages show all the business of one month. Each department 
of the business is given an item column and a money column. 
A similar book with other names for the columns should 
be used in keeping the household expenses. The columns 
could be headed: Furnishings, Wearing Apparel, Food, 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 365 

Personal Expenses, Repairs, Education and Church, Reading, 
Sundries, and others. 

Exercise. — Using the Column System. — Let students 
rule a sheet of paper for the column system, following the 
plan shown in Fig. 224. Then make ten or more appropriate 
entries, as practice work. Girls in the class may rule a sheet 
for a household page, using the headings suggested. 

Field records are very valuable to show the cost of pro- 
ducing any crop. To keep a cornfield record, a page of a 
book, having two money columns at the right side, is used. 
Books with such rulings are called "journals" and are for 
sale by stationers. Write in the record of the manuring, 
plowing, harrowing, seeding, planting, cultivating, and har- 
vesting. The amounts for such items are estimated at so 
much per day for man and team, and are written in the first, 
or left-hand, money column. Credit records are written on 
the same page later in the year. The items may include green 
corn fodder, cured fodder, and ripe corn. The amounts for 
these will go into the right-hand money column. At the end 
of the year add the amounts in each column; the difference 
will show the profit (or loss) from the field. 

Exercise. — Making a Field Record. — A page of paper 
should be ruled by each student like a "journal," with two 
money columns at the right and a date column at the left. 
Make the probable entries for one year for some familiar 
crop. Suitable amounts for the items may be estimated 
after talking with a good farmer. 

The Accounts to Keep on any farm will depend upon the 
special lines of farming that are followed. Some or all of 
the following accounts would be included: Cash, grocery, 
labor, horses, dairy, hogs, poultry, fruit, potatoes, and others. 
The Farmer a Salesman. — A farmer usually has produce 
of some kind to sell. Ke should advertise that fact in a 
number of useful ways : 

The produce itself should be put up in the very best form 



366 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

BO as to catch the eye of the consumer. This idea is used 
in the egg case and the fruit case shown in Figs. 205 and 
120, A. 

The farm from which the produce comes should be attrac- 
tive and pleasing in appearance, as to its fields, buildings, 
fences, and lawns. This also adds real value to the place 
itself. 

The farmer, his team, and wagon must be neat and 
presentable when making deliveries of goods. These help 
to sell future products. Dairymen wear white uniforms. 
The work clothes should be kept at home. The commercial 
traveling salesman does not wear a factory suit. 

The farm should have an attractive name. This name 
should be printed neatly on letterheads, envelopes, shipping 
cards; and on cases, crates, and baskets in which produce 
is sold. 

The farm name should be made prominent on articles 
exhibited at agricultural fairs or in advertisements in local 
newspapers. 

Bulletin boards bearing the name of the farm, and 
announcing the kinds of produce for sale, should be placed 
at the nearest approach of the public road. 

An inventory should be a part of the records of every 
farm. It is made up of two lists: (1) the things the farmer 
owns, and (2) the debts or liabilities of the farmer. The list 
of property is usually made in the winter, about January 
1st. It should include the land itself; the different buildings; 
the several kinds of live stock, with their numbers, breeds, 
and ages; the machines; the hay, grain, apples, potatoes, and 
other stored products; household goods. Making the inven- 
tory list is always easier after the first year, as many of the 
articles will be merely transferred to the new lists and their 
values corrected. 

Exercise. — Value of Property. — The whole class working 
together should make up a list of the articles which probably? 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 367 

would be found on some supposed place in the country. Let 
the complete list be made first, and the values may be added 
later. Students may learn the approximate values of dif- 
ferent articles by asking older people at home or elsewhere. 

Exercise. — Making an Inventory. — Let each pupil make 
an inventory of his father's property, and after the total 
value of the property has been estimated let him find the 
necessary net income in order to realize 5 per cent on the 
investment. Many different problems may be based on this 
exercise. 

Value of the Farm. — There arc many things to consider 
when determining the value of a farm. The surface and drairi- 
age, the soil, the size as suited to the type of farming, the 
shapes and sizes of the fenced fields, the kind of improve- 
ments, the neighbors (whether they are in the same lines 
of farming or not), the distance to good markets, and the 
kind of roads. Before buying a farm a man would also 
think of the climate, source of drinking water, health- 
fulness, churches, schools, mail service, telephone, and 
taxes. He might well estimate the cost of securing modern 
conveniences in the home, including a water-pressure system 
and house drainage. 

Need for better management in farming is easily seen 
on a majority of the farms in all sections of America. There 
are many losses to be checked: (1) better planning of the 
work to economize time of men and teams; (2) the utilizing 
of waste forage of the farms; (3) the plowing and washing of 
soil through failure to use winter cover crops; (4) loss of soil 
moisture by improper tillage methods; (5) the bad waste of 
barnyard manure; (6) failure to save farm seeds for future 
planting; (7) bad seed that is purchased; (8) spread of weeds 
on the farm through seeding of weeds in pastures, in fence 
rows, on roadsides; and by foul seeds purchased; (9) bad 
rotations; (10) run-down pastures; (11) badly arranged fields; 
(12) exposure and neglect of machinery and buildings; (13) 



368 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Doorly culled flocks and herds as breeding stock; (14) ravages 
of insect pests due to destruction of birds; (15) plant dis- 
eases not kept in control; (16) loss of animals that are im- 
properly treated ; (17) bad ventilation of buildings; (18) bad 
feeding methods. 

Modern agricultural teachings will greatly reduce these 
losses on our farms if the farmer himself will learn and apply 
them. There are good and inexpensive remedies for all the 
foregoing losses and wastes. The time has come when 
farmers, especially the younger ones, are willing and anxious 
to apply the best methods in their farm practices. As these 
methods are introduced farm wastes will gradually disappear. 

GETTING STARTED ON THE FARM. 

Young men and women desiring to enter farming as a 
means to a livelihood are usually confronted with the problem 
of how to get started. Where is the capital to come from? 
Shall we rent? Shall we " go in debt " for the land and equip- 
ment? Or shall we work for wages until enough is earned 
with which to buy a place? 

A Stepping Stone. — In many instances other callings are 
used as stepping stones to farming. Teaching, mercantile 
business, and other pursuits are often followed with the hope 
of getting enough capital to start into farming. This plan 
often results in failure in two ways: (1) attention to such 
pursuits trains the mind away from farming and usually all 
interest in modern agriculture is lost; (2) money is saved so 
slowly by most people that a farm cannot be acquired free 
from debt. 

The renting plan often furnishes the best means of getting 
started. By careful management and forethought in all 
details of the busmess money can be saved faster by the 
intelligent young man while operating a farm on shares than 
while teaching or clerking or managing a business in the city. 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 369 

It is true that many share renters never "get ahead," but 
bright young people with some knowledge of modern agri- 
culture must remember the numerous opportunities to gain 
where the average renter loses. 

Going in debt at the outset for part of the cost of the 
farm and equipment is usually justifiable. The most prosper- 
ous farmers in the best agricultural States are usually the 
heaviest borrowers. 

The operation of the national farm loan associations has 
reduced interest rates to farmers, has made the terms easier, 
and eliminated commissions. The borrower can either 
join such an association, or he may secure similar terms 
from other agencies. It is therefore easier than ever be- 
fore for young farmers, or others with little capital, to 
borrow money and make a better start in the farming 
business. 

Choice of a Farm. — There are many things to be con- 
sidered in the choice of a farm: (1) topography or surface; 
(2) suitability of soil for the crops to be growTi; (3) location 
of buildings with reference to fields; (4) shape of fields; (5) 
prosperity of community; (6) nearness and character of 
neighbors; (7) farm improvements; (8) water supply; (9) 
roads; (10) markets; (11) church; (12) school; (13) granges, 
unions or cooperative associations; (14) taxes; (15) labor 
supply. 

Probably no farm will ever be found that will suit the 
most critical in all these details ; yet all these and other points 
should be considered when a farm is selected. The farm 
should be thought of as a home as well as a place of busi- 
ness. 

Exercises. — 1. Classifying Farms. — Make a list of ten to 
twenty farms in your neighborhood. Classify them as to the 
chief business of each — dairying, swine raismg, grain farm- 
ing, and others. 

2. Opposite the name of each write the numbers of the 



S70 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

kinds of losses enumerated in this chapter, so far as they have 
applied or do apply to each. 

3. Note what variations in crop rotations are found in 
the neighborhood. Give reasons for these variations. 

4. Find out how many farms in your section have names 
such as "Meadow Brook Farm," "The Heights," "Alfalfa 
Acres," or others. Of what value to a farm is a name? How 
should a farmer advertise? 

5. Estimate the value of some farm with which you are 
very familiar. 

REVIEW. 

1. In what ways is farming different now from what it was fifty 
years ago? 

2. What has brought about these changes? 

3. What kind of men make the best farmers, educated or unedu- 
cated? 

4. Do farmers in 3'our section map their farms and plan their 
work ahead? 

5. Why should a farmer keep accounts? 

6. What accounts should he keep? 

7. AVhat is a field record and of what value is it? 

8. How may a farmer get the best prices for his products? 

9. Why should a farmer make an inventory? 

10. Name several poor or really bad methods generally practiced 
on farms. 

11. How may a yoimg man, or any man without money, acquire 
a farm of his own? 

12. How would you choose a farm? 

13. What bad management is found in your section? 

14. Suggest methods of improvement. 

15. Is there a federal farm loan association in your region? 

16. Wliat farmers whom you know keep accounts? 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 270, Modern Con- 
veniences for the Farm Home; 505, Benefits of Improved Roads; 511, 
Farm Bookkeeping; 572, System of Farm Cost Accounting; 593, How 
to Use Farm Credit; 597, Road Drag and How Used; 614, Efficient 
Farm System for Corn BeU; 635, What the Farm Contributes Directly 
to the Farmer's Living; 661, Method of Analj'zing Farm Business; 
745, Waste Land and Wasted Land on Farms; 746, The Farmer's 
Income; 782, Use of a Diary for Farm Accounts; 792, How the Federal 
Farm Loan Act Benefits the Farmer. 



FARM MECHANICS. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 
ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE. 

The value and importance of good roads is so great that 
there are national, state and local highway associations, 
formed for the agitation, promotion, location, and even the 
building of good roads. The almost universal use of auto- 
mobiles and trucks has been the greatest factor in making 
the need for good roads one of the livest issues of the day. 
Especially do we find much discussion of roads in the farm 
papers. 

Good roads in a community are a sign of prosperity, and 
prosperity is one result of good roads. The two seem to go 
together. The ancient Romans, who built the famous road 
known as the Appian Way, were wealthy people. While 
they had no automobiles to drive over this paved highway, 
still they knew they could haul loads, with their cumbersome, 
wooden-wheeled carts dra\vn by cattle, much more cheaply 
and easily over a good road than over a poor one. 

The same fact exists to-day. If a farmer has anything to 
haul to market he can do it with a greater saving of time and 
energy, and with less wear and tear on his vehicle, if the road 
be a good one. 

United States Highways. — Of the two million two hun- 
dred thousand miles of roads in the United States, the two 
hundred thousand, or a very small per cent, are classed as 
improved roads. So it is quickly apparent that the vast 
majority of people in this country are wasting much time 
and energy in getting about from place to place over poor 
roads. 

This should not be so. The situation should be exactly 
reversed, because the majority of people in the United States 

371 



372 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

are farmers, and if they have bad roads to contend with dur- 
ing the large portion of the year — or during any portion — 
they are often isolated and lonely. Thej^ are cut off from 
communication with neighbors. Children cannot attend 
school regularly. Kural mail carriers are often forced to 
abandon their trips. Profits are lost on produce that should 
be marketed, but cannot be hauled. 

Reasons for Good Roads. — The success of consolidated 
schools, rural delivery of mail, rural churches, and the ques- 
tion of hauling produce to market are probably the most 
important things from the point of view of the farmer. But 
good roads may mean quite as much to city dwellers, as they 
depend upon farm produce which is often hauled to the city 
markets. If not actually hauled to the city where consumed, 
it is somewhere hauled to the train which takes it to the city. 
In the peach-growing districts of New Jersey heavy loads of 
peaches are started at night and hauled by wagon to the large 
city markets, thirty or forty miles distant. This would not 
be possible except for the fine macadam roads. 

Kinds of Roads.- — Improved roads are of various kinds, 
one type generally being found in a certain section of the 
country. 

In California, for example, there is much concrete road. 
One may travel for hundreds of miles on roads which are 
made exactly like the cement sidewalks now so familiar in all 
towns and cities. 

In Tennessee, and in other limestone regions, the roads 
are macadam, or "stone roads." Many miles of the famous 
"Dixie Highway" are thus constructed. 

In regions where gravel is abundant it is used as the basis 
of the road improvement. 

Hundreds of miles of roads are graded and drained, then 
are covered with clay loam free from vegetation. In Georgia, 
Florida and elsewhere such are called top=soil roads. When 
well dragged and rolled they are very durable. 



ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 373 

Earth Roads. — But as those two million miles of unim- 
proved roads, before mentioned, are earth roads, and as they 
mostly need improvement, it will be best to consider what 
may be done with them, and how it may be done well and at 
a reasonable cost. 

In some sections the roads need to be straightened to cut 
out dangerous curves or to shorten them. In many instances 
steep grades need to be remedied before the road is made 
permanent. 

Construction of Roads. — The top of the road, or con- 
tour, should be slightly curved, to give good surface drain- 
age, as showTi in figure 225. At every point in the road this 
should be the same, as unevenness makes the road rough and 
may allow water to stand on it. A good road grader, pulled 
by several horses or a tractor, and followed by a heavy road 



Fia. 225. — Showing proper curvature of finished roadway so as to insure good 

drainage. 

roller, will put a road into such good shape that it can easily 
be cared for and kept in the best condition with the road drag. 
Proper Grade. — To make hauling of heavy loads the 
easiest possible, the grade should not be more than six feet 
in each hundred. Where the grade is steeper than this an 
effort should be made to equalize the differences by grading 
down the hills and filling in the lower places with the earth 
so obtained. 

Maintenance. — The roads, like the vehicles which pass 
over them, require constant care and maintenance to keep 
them in the best condition. One of the best methods tO' 
accomplish this is the use of the road drag. Either a split- 
log drag (Fig. 226) or. a drag similarly constructed of plank,, 
is very "effective in keeping a hard, smooth surface on earth 
roads. The road drag should be used after each heavy rain 
as soon as the soil ceases to be sticky. This will eliminate 



374 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ruts and deep cutting of roadbeds, with consequent clods 
and himips. 

Drainage is also important. The rules for drainage must 
depend upon the lay of the land. Naturally a road through 
a flat, low country must have deeper ditches beside it than 
in a high or rolling location. Culverts and small bridges 
may be made of concrete, and should be large enough to 
take care of the greatest amount of water that ever falls 
in that region. 




Fio. 226. — Road drag for surfacing roads after heavy rains. 

Shade Objectionable. — Too much shade on a road pre- 
vents its drying out after a wet spell. Dense clumps of trees 
bordering the road should be thinned. Hedges should 
be trimmed. Sunlight is as important to good roads as to 
good crops. 

Wide Tires.— If farmers can be persuaded to use wide- 
tired wagons for hauling heavy loads the roads may be more 
easily kept in repair. In some States any farmer who will 
use such a wagon may have a certain per cent of his road 
tax refunded. 

Exercises.— 1. Make a map of the roads in your neigh- 
borhood. Determine if they could be improved at any point 
by change of grade, or change in lo«?tion. Also how they 
could be made better by drainage. 



ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND IVL4INTENANCE 375 

2. Determine the nmnber of miles of road in your school 
district. What per cent of it is good? What per cent is bad? 
How much is sunply fair? Is any of it positively impassable 
at smy time of the year? 

3. Tr}' to find out, by actual experiment or inquiiy, how 
much it would cost to keep a mile of average road in your 
community in good condition for a year with a road drag. 
From this estimate what the cost would be to keep ail the 
roads in your school district in good condition. From these 
estimates try to decide whether it would be a paying propo- 
sition for each farmer to care for the section of road wliich 
borders his own property. 

4. What highway organizations are in your State and 
county? What road officers do you have, and what are 
their duties? What road taxes are paid by your district? 
What vehicles are specially taxed, and how much? For what 
is this monej" used? 

5. Let the students do something to beautify the roads in 
their district. Get unsightly things out of the roadsides. 
Plant trees that will eventually be a joy to travellers, and the 
pride of the neighborhood. Plant vines on roadside fences. 
Plant an occasional fruit tree. In many foreign countries 
fi'uit trees are planted by the roadsides and the fruit may be 
picked by passing travellers. Roses and other flowering 
shrubs would not be out of place beside the public roads. 

6. Glass, wire, tin cans, rocks, sticks and other obstruc- 
tions should be removed from roads by pupils. Let reports 
on this work be made until much interest is aroused and 

good habits are formed. 



REVIEW. 

1. How many miles of roads are there in the United States? 
What percentage are improved roads ? 

2. Why should roads he improved ? 

3. What kinds of improved roads have you seen? Describe them. 
25 



376 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

4. Tell what you can of road construction. 

5. How are good roads maintained? 

6. Why should roads be drained'^ 

7. What effect do narrow and wide tires have on roads? 

8. What have you done to beautify the roadways in your neigh- 
borhood? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins on Roads: Nos. 311, 333, 
505, 597. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 
WORK WITH ROPE. 



Students of both city and country will find much value 
and interest in learning to tie a few useful knots and to splice 
ropes. For a farmer the methods of tying and mending rope 
are of great value. The knowledge may be the means of 
saving a crop of hay, saving animals from injur>', or even 
saving human life. A few of the most common hitches, knots, 
and splices are here shown. 

How Ropes and Cables are Made.^Cotton or hemp 
fibres of various grades are used in making ropes. Fibres 
are spun to the right hand to make yarn; yarns are twisted 
to the left to form strands. Three strands twisted to the 
right are used to make a common rope or hawser. If three 
hawsers or ropes are twisted together to the left they form a 
cable. The reversal of spinning or twisting aids in keeping 
the rope or cable from unwinding. The strength of any rope 
depends upon its fibres, yarns, and strands lying closely 
together so they cannot slip. 

Square Knot. — This is the knot that should be used most 
commonly in tying cords together, as in tying up packages. 
The knot will not slip and yet it is easily untied. Tie a 



WORK WITH ROPE 



377 



common first knot and then cross the ends and tie again 
so as to bring each of the two ends back along its own 
rope body, as shown in figure 227, A. Practice until 
learned well. 

Granny Knot. — This is started as in the square knot, but 
the last half is reversed so that the ends will not lie along 




ji3:03sss^ 




Fig. 227. — A, square knot; B, surgeon's knot; C, weaver's knot. 

their own rope bodies. This knot is insecure, and should 
seldom be used. 

Surgeon's Knot. — The first part is like the first part of 
the square knot except that the ropes are put around each 
other twice instead of only once. The finish is like the finish 
of the square knot. The surgeon's knot hasi the advantage 



378 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



of having the first step hold itself while the last step is being 
completed (Fig. 227, B). 

Weaver's Knot. — This knot, when finished, differs from 
the square knot by having the end of the right-hand rope 
laid across between its rope body and the two lines of the 
left-hand rope, as shown in figure 227, C. The procedure is 
usually somewhat different. First, make the "bight" with 






Fig. 228. — A, slip knot; B, bownne; C, running bowline. 

the rope in the left hand. Then put the right-hand rope 
through this "bight" far enough to wrap it over and bring 
the end through and across between the two ropes as shown. 
Then draw the rope tight. Practice this many tunes as it is 
u good knot for many uses. 

Slip Knot. — This is an easy knot to tie if figure 228, A 
is examined closely. It is used in tying ropes or halter reins 
to hitching posts, and many other purposes. 

Bowline. — (1) IMake a loop or turn in the bod}' of the 
rope some distance from the end, as shown at L in figure 228, 



WORK WITH ROPE 



379 



B. (2) After putting the end through a ring or around a 
post pass the end through the loop L. (3) Pass the end 
around the body of the rope and bring it back through the 
loop as shown. When drawn tight the bowline knot is com- 
pleted. This should be practiced until you can do it with 
your eyes shut, as it is one of the most valuable knots for 
logging work, for picketing or tying stock, for use by con- 
tractors and builders, as well as others. When the cut is 
inverted you have what may be called an overhand bowline. 
Running Bowline. — This is a lasso or slip-knot bowline, 





B 



Fig. 229.— a, half hitch; B, timber hitch; C, timber hitch and half hitch. 

made by having the body of the rope in place of the ring or 
post mentioned in (2) of the preceding description. See fig- 
ure 228, C. 

Half Hitch. — This simple hitch, shown in figure 229, A, 
is often used in connection with other knots and hitches. It 
may also be used alone as shown in the figure. 

Timber Hitch. — While this is a simple and quick hitch, 
it is much more secure than the half hitch. It is used by 
loggers and builders, hence its name. The end is wrapped 
around the rope one or more times. In this respect it differs 
from the half hitch, where the end is merely tucked under. 
Compare .4 and B, figure 229. 

Timber Hitch and Half Hitch.^ — This is a combination 



380 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



of the two preceding — the timber hitch usually being made 
first and the half hitch afterwards. The half hitch may be 
repeated several times if desired. This is not uncommon 
when large bimdles or bales are being tied up. This com- 
bined hitch is useful for handling long timbers and long 
pipes. See figure 229, C. 

Clove Hitch.- — This may be formed either in the middle 
of the rope or near the end. Practice making the hitch as 
shown in figure 230. This is the sailor's method. The clove 



^.c^^^'^-) 




^ 



yOZOCO 




Fig. 230. — Clove hitch, sailor method. 



hitch is the most useful hitch. It is very convenient, simple, 
and secure for guy ropes, tent ropes, etc. 

Short Splice. — Two ropes may be quickly spliced to- 
gether by the short splice method. About three inches from 
each of the ends to be spliced together is required for a quar- 
ter-inch rope; six inches for half-inch rope, etc. As all the 
strands are intertwined at one place, this method makes the 
rope twice as large at this place. This makes it unsuitable 
for use with a pulley. If a spliced rope is needed for use 
through a pulley the long splice should be used. 

Method of Short Splice.— First, unla}^ the strands of 
both ends that are to be spliced. Butt the ends of the rope 



WORK WITH ROPE 



381 



together as shown at 1, figure 231. Pair the six strands so 
that each strand pointing to your right is adjacent to a 
strand beyond it, pointing to your left. 

Tie a first (overhand) knot with each pair, as shown at 
2. Then continue to wrap each strand around its mate in 
both directions until the ends are nearly used up. In doing 
this wrapping, keep the strands tightly twisted, as when the 
rope was first made. The wrapping should take the direc- 





FiG. 231. — Short splice, showing four stapes in the operation 1. The six 
strands of the two ropes arranged in pairs, A-B, C-D, E-F. 2. A-B tied with first 
overhand knot. 3. Each of the three pairs tied with first step of surgeon's knot; 
4. Completed splice. 



tion of the natural twist of the rope. Trim off all surplus 
ends, as show^n at 4. 

The Long Splice. — This method of splicing ropes together 
leaves them of the same diameter they were before, yet as 
strong as if made in one piece. The method is good to use 
for well ropes, hay ropes, and others that are used with 
pulleys. For each quarter-inch of diameter allow about 
nine inches on each of the two ends to be spliced together. 
For one-inch rope we would use about three feet from 
each end. 

Unlay one strand from each end the required distance. 



382 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Bring the ropes together at this point, as shown at 1, 
figure 232. Hold the ropes at this point with the left hand. 
Unlay strand B from the right-hand rope, and lay strand A 
snugly in its place, working to some distance to the right, as 
shown in 2. 

Now unlay the other two pairs of strands and mate them 




^ EgS^,<!jy^agg!g^m'mNao.-^-^:-^t^r^^V f<s^ 



Fig, 232. — Eight stages or steps in the long ?plicc. (First four siap-es after 
H. W. Kiley.) 



with each other exactly as shown in the third stage, 3, let- 
tered C-D and E-F. Unlay strand C and place D in its place, 
working toward the left some distance, as shown in view 4. 
Trim all the long strands to make them as short as the 
shortest, somewhat as shown in 4. 

The remainder of the splice is practically alike for each 
of the three pairs. Let us, therefore, consider the pair A-B 
only. Unlay B about three inches (for quarter-inch rope), 
without following with ^4. See stage 5. Now split each 



WORK WITH ROPE 



383 



strand of A and B, and twist a half strand of each firmly 
and lay these in the vacant channel until thej^ meet 
midway. Tie these together with a common overhand knot 
(stage 6,) and draw snugly. This part of the rope is now 
to be made full size by wrapping these half strands con- 
tinuously around each other until they meet the points 
of division, stage 7. The four half strands may then be 
trimmed close to the rope. When the pairs C-D and E-F 




Fig. 233. — Rope halter. Construction at left. Finished halter at right. 

H. W. Riley.) 



(Alter 



are finished in much the same way, the rope will have 
the appearance shown in stage 8. Note that the pair 
A-B was carried to the right to work; the pair C-D was 
carried to the left to work; so the pair E-F will have to 
finish in the center (see 4). To do this the strands 
E and F will each be unlaid a half distance before splitting 
the strands. 

A four-strand rope would be spliced in the same way as 
this three-strand rope except that four finishing places would 
need to be planned by the operator. 

Rope Halter. — It is often of great value to be able to 
make a good rope halter quicklj'. A study of figure 233 will 
enable an ingenious person, who has spliced ropes, to make a 



384 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

good rope halter of any size desired. Practice will aid much 
in making the work more perfect. 

Form the halter over the knee while sitting down, so as to 
get reasonable dimensions. First decide where the eye, A, is 
to be made. At B raise the top strand of the rope and pass 
the short end of the rope through it toward the left. Then 
raise the top strand of the short end at A and pass the long 
end through it towards the right. Unlay the short end to C 
and pass the middle strand under the outer strand of the 
main rope at D. Raise the next strand of the main rope and 
pass the lower end through it. Now complete the splice by 
continuously passing each of the three strands around its 
mate in the rope. The long end of the rope is then run 
through the eye of the halter. 

REVIEW. 

1. How would you manage a new rope to avoid kinks? 

2. How many of the knots and hitches can you make from memory? 

3. Have you learned any others not here given? What are they? 

4. What are the advantages of the short splice? 

5. When woukl it be advisable to make the long splice? 

6. What knots do you consider the most useful? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 347, Repair of Farm 
Equipment. Cornell Reading Course Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 8, Knots, 
Hitches and Splices; Iowa Extension Bulletin 24, Rope and its Uses; 
Minnesota Bulletin 136, Rope and Its Use on the Farm. 



REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT 



385 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 
REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT— HANDY DEVICES. 

On modern farms the machinery is too often out of repair 
at the time it is needed for farm work. One of the best ele- 
ments in good management is to have the equipment in good 
condition at all times. The equipment includes not only the 



\fOffS£. 



tVOOO-tVCWKWe BS/^CM. 



e/>/fTM nooff. j 



PL/iMK noo/f. 



mm-wo/iKMG efA/c». 



\^ 



'/6rt- 



P'lG. 234.— Floor plan of workshop. (U.S.D.A.) 

buildings, fences/ field machinery, but also the garden tools, 
dairy utensils, and other small articles. We should also 
include a shop, tools and materials with which to repair the 
farm equipment. 

The elements in the care of equipment are : 

1. Keep machinery housed when not in use. 

2. Keep machines, buildings, gates, and similar equip- 
ment painted. 

3. Oil machine bearings when placed in storage as well 
as when in use. 

4. Constant attention to repairs of all kinds of equipment. 



386 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Repair Work on the Farm. — A farm shop may not be 
necessary if there is a good repair shop near by. But usually 
a room or small building where all the hand tools of the farm 
can be housed is a great asset on any farm. Here should be 

Fig. 235. Fig. 236. 




Fig. 23.5 — This three-horse evener is easily constructed by attaching a 
single-tree and a two-horse evener to a new triple-tree divided as shown. 
Fig. 236 — One of the best forms of a three-hoise evener. 

found the grindstone, work benches, vise, a few of the most 
important wood-working tools, a few pipe tools, other iron- 
working tools, drill press, harness mending tools, etc. Per- 
haps a forge and anvil may be in an adjoining room as shown 
in figure 234. Paints and machine oil may be kept in the 
opposite end of the building. 




Fig. 237. — Lifting lever for wagon rack or bed. It saves heavy lifting and requires 

onlj- one person. 

Plan of the Farm Shop. — It is unportant that there be 
a place for every tool and that the shop be kept in neat order. 
If not it will soon look like a junk room. Figure 234 shows 
a good plan arrangement. Let the carpentry tools be hung 
over the wood-working bench. It is a good plan to paint an 
outline of each tool on the wall where that tool is to hang. 
Then they are easih' kept in place, and if any are missing 
the fact is easily noticed. Boxes containing bolts, screws, 



REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT 



387 



nails, staples, rivets, hinges, and fittings should be on shelves 
and should be plainlj^ labeled. 

Time for Repairing. — Bo3^s on the farm should be taught 
to use the tools and to do careful work with them. This is 
of great value m keeping them interested in the repair work 
of the farm. 

Much of the repair work of the field machinery may be 
done on rainy days, during the winter, or at midday in hot 



Fig. 23S. — A simple wagon jack is a very useful 
device on any farm. 




Fig. 239. — A simple but 
old-fashioned gate latch that 
many a boy could make. 



summer weather. Let all machines be looked over before 
they are to be needied, as at haying or harvest time. Never 
wait until the machine is needed before seeing that it is in 
perfect repair. 

Handy devices for use in the home and on the farm 
should be made in the farm shop when time will permit. 
A fe^v suggestions for such devices are shown in figures 
235-244. 

Three=Horse Eveners. — It is often desired to hitch 
three horses together in pulling heav}^ machinery or doing 
hard plowing. Two plans for three-horse eveners are shown 
in figures 235 and 236. 



388 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Hay Rack Lifter. — This man-saver is worth a place 
on many farms. It is made of a height to suit the height of 
the wagon. Its construction is simple, as shown in figure 237. 
To use it, raise the long end of the lever until the short end 
will go under the hay rack or wagon box to be lifted. By 
lowering the long lever the lifting is easy. The wire may be 
slipped to one of the notches to hold the weight. One end of 



"WW" 




Fig. 240. — A home-made bag for picking the highest fruit from trees. It saves 
shaking and bruising the fruit. 




Fig. 241. — A monkey wrench and round file may serve as a pipe wrench. 




Fig. 242. — A simple garden marker for light garden soil. 

the rack or bed is thus lifted at a time to some height. Many 
farmers suspend the racks or beds under a shed. With 
this plan one man with little effort may remove the heaviest 
rack alone. 

A wagon Jack is one of the handiest devices on a farm. 
Make the lever four to six feet long. Make several holes so 
the height may be adjusted to the vehicle when the spindles 
are to be greased. The rod may be of heavy wire. The 
block on the left (Fig. 238) is movable and holds the rod 
and lever when desired. 

An automatic gate latch, such as shown in figure 239, is one 



REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT 



389 



of the oldest and simplest ways of being sure that a gate is 
latched when it closes. Usually the gates of a farm should 
swing in such a way that they will close by their own weight. 
Then this latch will hold them. 

A long=handled fruit picking bag may be made at home. 
A heavy wire may be bent as shown in figure 240. The ends 
are then thrust into a long, stout 
bamboo pole. The bag is small. 
Its chief use is for picking such 
fruits as apples when out of reach 
of the picking ladders. Never 
shake fruit off the trees. 

A pipe wrench may be im- 
provised by placing a round file 
(rat-tail file) with the pipe in the 
jaw? of a common wrench, as 
shown in figure 241. It will serve 
the purpose if the strain is not 
very great. 

A garden marker for two rows 
may be made as shown in figure 
242. If the soil is light and loose, 
a horse may not be needed. 

Large fly traps such as that 
shown in figure 243 are useful in 
daily barns, piggeries, and other 
places where flies are abundant 
attractive bait may be placed 







> 



Fig. 243. — A home-made fly trap. 



Banana peels or other 
under the bottom hole. 
The central cone of screen wire has a half-inch hole at the 
top through which the flies enter the main trap. When well 
filled with flies they may be killed with boiling water. They 
are then removed at a small opening made at the bottom 
edge by removing a single tack. 

A chick creep for feeding young chickens is shown in 
figure 244. A space of two inches is left at the bottom by 



390 PRODU( TIVE FARMING 

making the four corner posts longer than the side boards. 
The frame may be made of a size to suit the width of the 
poultry wire to be used on top. When little chicks are fed 
in here the large fowls cannot bother them. 




Fig. 244. — A protective screen for feedin? young chicks in yards where larger fowk 

Mre kept. 



REVIEW. 

1. Give a list of thing.s to be done in the care of farm equipment. 

2. What places have you seen that have farm workshops? 

3. Give a list of their repair equipment. 

4. What are the most essential tools for the repair shop? 

5. Make a list of the simple, handy farm devices which you have 
seen or learned about. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 179, Horseshoeing; 744, 
Preserving Timbers; 813, Fami Weirs; 825 and 855, Silos; 828, Farm 
Reservoirs; 842, Protection Against Lightning; 927, Farm Home Con- 
veniences; 941, Water Svstems for Farm Homes; 943, 956, 987, 991, 
992, 1009, 1036, 1049, "Haying and Harvesting Machinery; 946, 
947, Care and Repair of Implements; 966, Hog-breeding Crate; 
997, Terracing. 



POWER ON THE FARM 391 

CHAPTER XXXV. 
POWER ON THE FARM. 

Animal power, wind, and water power have long been in 
use on farms for various purposes. Many of the well-equipped 
farms of to-day use gas engines to operate many kinds of 
farm machinery. Electric power is coming into more general 
use. It is used as stationary power in running small machines 
and in producing light. 

Using Gas Engines. — The widespread knowledge of the 
use of gas engines makes it possible to find many men and 
boys who are fairly competent to operate them. 

Their use as stationary engines first became popular, 
but soon after they came to be extensively used in running 
automobiles, motor trucks and farm tractors. 

Motor Trucks. — It is not an uncommon sight to find both 
heavy and light motor trucks in use on farms in regions 
where roads are good. They are most common in the vicinity 
of the best city markets. This is doubtless due to the fact 
that one of their chief uses is in marketing farm produce. 
Farmers thus haul to market baled hay, threshed grain, 
potatoes, garden truck, fruit, livestock, milk, etc. Trucks are 
used in hauling mill feeds, commercial fertilizers and other 
forms of merchandise out to farms. 

Large motor trucks are more economical to operate than 
small ones, when full loads are taken. This is because one 
operator can do more work in a day with a large motor truck. 

Cooperative and private motor truck routes are maintained 
in a number of riu'al districts. See Farmers' Bulletin 1032. 

Plowing With Gas Tractors. — The chief use of the gas 
tractor on modern farms is for plowing. Usually the owner 
docs not hope to save money Iw getting his plowing done at 
a less price per acre. One man does more plowing in a very 

26 



392 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



short time; it can be done in very hot weather without injury 
to th'aft animals; double cropping is thus often accomplished; 
one man can farm more acres; hired help is not so necessary; 
more hours in the day are likely to be used. 

One of the disadvantages of the tractor in some sections, 
is the chfficult}^ in using it when the soil is rather wet, if it is 
naturally heavy" soil. Spring work may be delayed while 
waiting for wet parts of a field to become dry enough to use 
a heavy tractor. This difficulty is less serious with cater- 




FlG. 245. — Oiipnint; road diains witl 



II. 1 tiartor. iCIrvrlaii'l Tinctor Co.) 



pillar tractors. The moisture can be rapidly reduced by har- 
rowing the ficl ' with a team before plowing. 

Sizes of Tractors for Plowing. — The very large tractors, 
pulling six to twelve or more breaker bottoms, were once used 
on the northwestern plains, but these are now seldom found. 
Those pulling two, three, four or five are far more popular. 
The two- or three-plow sizes are most rapidlj'- coming into 
favor. The original investment is less; the cost of opera- 
tion is lov/; the loss of time from troubles is less serious; 
and the small-sized tractor is more suitable for many 
other farm operations. 

Cost of Plowing With Tractors. — There are a number of 
elements or factors to be considered in calculating the cost 



POWER ON THE FARM 393 

of tractor work: fuel, oil, grease repairs depreciation, man 
labor, and interest on money mvested. 

In some investigations it has been found that two and 
one-half to three and one-half gallons of fuel is an average 
amount consumed in plowing one acre. This amount varies 
with the operator, kind of fuel (gasoline or kerosene) depth of 
plowing, kind and condition of soil, sharpness and adjustment 
of plows, and underloading or overloading of the tractor. 

The quantity of lubricating oil per acre may be figured 




Fig. 24f). — A caterpillar tractor drawing a wagon and hay loader. (Cleveland 

Tractor Co.) 

at three-fifths of a quart, and the cup grease at a])out one 
pound per day or about one cent per acre. 

Ten to twenty cents per acre should be allowed for re- 
pairs. Depreciation should be calculated at from thirty to 
forty cents per acre. At four dollars per day for an operator 
the cost per acre for the two-plow to four-plow outfits is about 
sixty-five cents down to thirty -seven cents. 

The interest on the investment cannot be calculated on 
the acre basis unless it is kno\^n how man}' acres will be 
plowed each year. It should be counted at about seventy- 
five cents to one dollar per acre if the tractor is used for plow- 
ing say fortj'-five to sixt}^ days in each year, with no other 
work to its credit. 



394 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Tractors for Pulling Other Implements. — Farm tractors 
are frequently used for pulling disk harrows, soil packers, 
hay wagons (Fig. 246), moving threshing machines, grain 
binders (Fig. 251), mowers, manure spreaders (Fig. 249), 
and other implements. They are easily hitched to any 
implement to be drawn on the farm. They are useful in 
hauUng heavy loads of lumber, logs, commercial fertilizer, 
grain, etc. They are sometimes used in pulling stumps. 




Fig. 247. — Plan for laying out an irregular field for tractor plowing. Throw 
the furrows toward the center, B ; then plow around the field throwing the furrows 
from the edges. The corners may be finished with a team if necessary. 

hauling rock, and otherwise clearing land. They may be 
useful in road work by pulling scrapers, road graders, (Fig. 
245), scarifiers, and in hauling road materials. 

Operating Stationary Machinery. — Since small-sized farm 
tractors have come into general use they are much used for 
belt work in operating stationary machines of many kinds. 
Other gas engines are also much used for such purposes. 

Heavy lines of farm work for such power to do are: 
Threshing grain (Fig. 252), shredding and husking corn, 
baling hay and straw (Fig. 248), cutting fodder and filling 
silos (Fig. 250), crushing rock for roads and fields, elevating 
corn and grain. 



POWER ON THE FARM 



395 



Lighter kinds of work are : Shelling corn, grinding 
grain, grinding tools, sawing wood, operating lighting 
systems, piunping water, running milking machines, wash- 
ing clothes, churning butter, running cream separators and 
vacuum cleaners. 

Operation of Gas Engines. — Only a careful and experi- 
enced operator can handle a tractor or other gas engine prop- 
erly. Experience should be gained under a good instructor 
for a few days. Careful preparation is important. Instruc- 




FiG. 24S. 



-Baling hay with tractor to drive the baler. (International Har- 
vester Co.) 



tion books and trouble charts should be read a number of 
times until the operator becomes expert. 

Ignorant, careless workmen and bo3^s should not be 
trusted with such engines without thorough training. One 
of the objections to owning a tractor is the inabilitj^ to find a 
competent operator. This is the chief cause of failure 
in cases where tractors have proved to be unprofitable. 

Four Essentials in Operation. — The four most important 
requirements in the successful operation of a gas engine are: 
(1) Proper mixture of the gas with air; (2) perfect compres- 
sion by the piston; (3) ample spark (called ignition); (4) 
correct valve action. 

The mixture of gas and air is obtained through a carbu- 



396 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



retor which allows the suction of the piston to ch'aw in both 
fuel gas and enough air with each stroke. The temperature 
greatly influences the amount of fuel gas and so more fuel is 
usually supplied during the first few strokes when the engine 
is starting and becoming warm. 

Abundant moisture in the air also slightly affects the mixt- 
ure and some little adjustment may improve the mixture 
when the weather is unusually wet or dr>\ The beginner 
should usually let the carburetor mixture alone after the 
engine is running and is fairly warm. He should know 




Fig. 249. — Tractor used in hauling manure spreader. (Tennessee Power Farming 

Review.) 

that the carburetor is extremely sensitive and that a very 
slight change in its adjustment is very effective in chang- 
ing the mixture. 

The amount of unburned fuel which appears as black 
smoke from the exhaust pipe is usually controlled by having 
a proper mixture. One part of fuel gas to four parts of air is 
a very rich mixture and may jiroduce considerable smoke 
under ordinary temperature and moisture. One part to 
twelve or fourteen is called a very lean mixture and would 
have too little power for an engine at work. 

Good compression is necessary so that the full power of 
the fuel will be obtained. Piston rings are placed around the 



POWER ON THE FARM 



397 



piston so that it will not allow gas to leak pa.st it. If well 
lubricated the rings will spring closely against the cylinder 




Fig. 250. — Tractor running a silage cutter and blowing the cut corn into a very 
high concrete silo. (Tennessee Power Farming Review.) 

and prevent leaks. They will become worn and should then 
be replaced with new ones. 

Spark System. — This is often called the ignition system. 
By it the compressed gas in the cylinder is lighted and caused 
to explode. This explosion throws the piston toward the 



398 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



opposite ond of the cylinder. This performs the work. If 
the spark fails the power fails. The firing or lighting of the gas 
is now usually done, in American engines, by means of an 
electric spark from a spark coil which receives its current 
either from a battery or from a magneto (dynamo). 

The make=and=break method uses a simple coil and low 
tension current. The circuit is closed and opened at the 
proper time, automatically, by a device for that purpose. 
This plan is common on stationary engines. 




ter Co.) 



The jump=spark system uses a high tension induction 
coil, and the current when interrupted will jump a small 
gap of a spark plug. This spark ignites the compressed gas 
in the cylinder. There are no movable parts within the 
cylinder as in the other system. The jump-spark may usually 
be controlled by changing the time of the circuit breaker. 
This is called advancing or retarding the spark. 

Proper valve action is essentially the careful timing of the 
valves which open to let the ga.ses into the cyhnder and 
close it for the power stroke. Exhaust valves open just 
before the end of the expansion stroke to let the burned 
gases escape. Inlet valves are self-timing on many station- 
ary engines, as the suction stroke of the piston opens them. 

Directions for the regulation of the valves of each engine 



POWER ON THE FARM 



399 



should be closely followed. If gummy oil or carbon collects 
on the valves they should be cleaned to prevent leaks of gas. 

Engine Troubles. — The chief engine troubles are associ- 
ated with one or more of the four essentials which have just 
been considered. The operator should learn to reason regard- 
ing each of these and determine the probable cause of any 
trouble. Get United States Farmers' Bulletin 1013 and 
check over the trouble chart for gas engines. 

A common trouble comes from the use of too little oil in 
lubricating the engine. The rings of the piston are apt to 




Fig. 252. — Threshing wheat with the power of a tractor. (Cleveland Tractor Co.) 

get dry and stick; this causes trouble with the compression. 
Too much oil in the cylinder will cause carbon deposit, as 
shown by blue smoke from the exhaust pipe. This causes 
over-heating and loss of power. Oil of proper quality should 
be used. If the machine is one which supplies oil from the 
crank case this should be cleaned out occasionally. 

Starting Troubles. — It is more common to find troubles 
in starting an engine than at any other time. When it is 
impossible to get a single explosion, trouble is likely to be in 
the mixture. The fuel may be flooded into the cylinder, 
in which case the supply should be cut off and the cylinder 
emptied by a few revolutions of the crank. The supply of 
gas may be too low or too cold. Usually the mix-ture will 



400 producti\:e farming 

need to be changed by continual trial until an explosion is 
obtained. In cold weather a little hot water on the carburetor 
to warm it, will aid in the formation of gas from the fuel. 

Engines which burn kerosene or other oil are usually 
started with a small supply of gasoline until enough heat is 
generated to readily vaporize the fuel oil. 

Spark troubles in make-and-break engines may arise 
from the cm'rent source failing, or to a bad connection of the 
wires. This trouble can be tested by opening and closing 
the circuit by hand. Watch for a good spark. 

When trouble is suspected in the jump-spark system it 
should be tested by removing the spark plug and laying it on 
the cylinder. Then operate the cncuit breaker by hand and 
watch for a spark. If a good spark is not seen, the trouble 
may be in the source of the current, in the wire connections, 
in the insulation being wet or worn, or in a dirty spark plug. 

Electric Power on Farms. — As the scarcity of coal be- 
comes more apparent the use of electricity, generated by 
water power, will become more common. Electricity from 
this source or from coal, is now most common on farms that 
are near cities that are supplied with electricity. All belt- 
driven machines may be operated by electric motors. 

Electric motors are expensive to purchase, but they have 
a number of advantages, viz., easy to operate, always ready, 
no power wasted, clean and compact. 

Electric Lights.— Farms wired for electric power can be 
easily lighted even without operating their own generators. 
Electric hghts in homes, barns and elsewhere, are less trouble- 
some, less dangerous, more efficient, and more convenient 
than the usual kerosene lamps and lanterns. 

Farm Dams and Water Power. — There are thousands of 
farms which have water power in their own streams. In 
many places farmers have harnessed this water power by 
building dams and running water wheels. The water wheels 
are sometimes used directly to operate the belt-driven 



POWER ON THE FARM 401 

machines of the farm. In other cases they are made to 
drive dynamos and generate cm-rent for all uses on the farm. 

This is often a veiy handy vsource of power for the farm 
and too often is not realized by the owner. 

Hydraulic Ram. — Where two or more feet of fall can be 
secured within a hundred feet or so from a sprmg, it is usually 
possible to place a hydraulic ram. This is a very inexpensive 
device for forcing water to the house or other farm buildings. 

If water from a spring is thus forced to a small tank for 
house purposes, much labor is saved forever. The ram oper- 
ates with little or no wear and without the use of oil. It is 
almost everlasting. 

A stead}^ water supply of this kind makes it possible 
to install a hot water tank in the Idtchen and equip a 
modern bathi'oom. 

The constant overflow of water from the house tank may 
run to a dairy trough, then to a stock trough, then to a hog 
wallow, then to a garden for urigating purposes. 

Windmills. — In many parts of the country windmills are 
used for pimiping water and for other light work. The wind 
is variable in power and uncertain, and as a source for the 
farm power it is not often used for operating belt machines. 
This uncertainty and unsteadiness is usually not serious in 
the pmnping of water because a storage tanlc is easily sup- 
phed. Large tanks are often built on the winchnill tower. 

Windmills are easy to maintain and manage. Children 
and women can throw them mto gear, and a man or boy can 
climb up to oil them. 

Animal Power. — No power has yet been devised which is 
more convenient than horses and mules for direct draft of 
farm machinery. Tractor engines are only partly displacing 
them for this purpose. The corners of fields can hardly be 
plowed, harrowed, etc., without the use of animals. For 
cultivation of truck crops, gardens, and similar pui'poses, 
horse power is probably the best. 



402 PRODUCTI\'E FARMING 

Animal power is often used on siceeps for operating balers, 
grinders, and some other machines. Such power has long 
been used on tread mills for operating belt machines for such 
work as sawing wood, grinding, threshing, etc. Bulls, calves, 
sheep, and heavy dogs are used on tread mills for light work — 
cream separation, churning, milking, washing clothes, pump- 
ing water, etc. 

Exercise. — The students should visit one or more farms 
having a tractor, motor truck or stationary engine. If 
possible, study belting systems, uses of power, parts of en- 
gines, troubles, etc. At some places study lighting systems, 
other forms of power, etc. 

REVIEW. 

1. For what work are motor trucks used by farmers in your region? 

2. What sizes of motor trucks have you seen? 

3. Give the advantages of using tractors for plowing. 

4. What are the disadvantages? 

5. Discuss the sizes of tractors for farm work. 

6. What are the factors which enter into the cost of plowing 
with tractors? 

7. What is the average fuel cost per acre? 

8. What things cause this to vary? 

9. How much grease and oil are required? 

10. What is the cost of repairs? What should be allowed for 
depreciation? 

11. Give some examples of cost of tractors and plows, and figure 
the necessary annual interest charge. 

12. What other farm implements are sometimes drawn by tractors 
in your region? 

13. What other lines of farm work are done by tractors? 

14. Ask some farmer the necessary horse power for operating each 
of the belt machines on fanns. 

15. Discuss the need of competent operators for tractors. 

16. What are the four chief essentials in operation of gas engines? 

17. What is the carburetor? Discuss its uses. 

18. What does the black smoke from the exhaust indicate? 
Blue smoke? 

19. Tell of the importance of good compression. 

20. What sources of current are used for ignition of gas engines? 

21. Describe the make-and-break system, and tell how to test it. 

22. Describe the jump-spark system and tell how to test it. 

23. Discuss the importance of proper valve action. 

24. What engine troubles have you observed? 

25. What engine troubles are most common? 

26. For what work may electric motore be used on farms? 



POWER ON THE FARM 403 

27. Give the advantages of electric lights over kerosene lamps in 
the dairy; in the barn; in the farm home. 

28. Tell what you can of the uses of water power on farms, with 
examples, if possible. 

29. Describe the advantages and use of a hydraulic ram. 

30. Tell what you can of the work of windmills. 

31. Tell what you can of some unusual uses of animal power on 
the farm. 

References. — ^U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 813, Farm Wiers; 866 
Windmills for Irrigation; 996, Steam Sterilization; 719, 963, 1004, 
1013, 1035, Gas Tractor; 1023, Cutting Firewood; 1032, A Motor 
Truck Route; 1045, Laying Out Fields for Tractor Plowing; 946, 947, 
1036, Care and Repair of Farm Implements; 943, 956, 987, 1009, 1049, 
On Hay Machinery; 991, Threshing Machines; 992, Corn Cutting 
Machinery; 941, Water Systems for Farm Homes. 



PART V. 
APPENDIX— REFERENCE TABLES. 



TABLE I. 

REFERENCE BOOKS. 

The school library should be supplied with a set of all 
available United States Farmers' Bulletins and the printed 
index to the same; a set of the State Experiment Station 
bulletins; the Yearbooks of the United States Department of 
Agriculture; the circulars of the United States Bureau of 
Entomology; the volumes on animal diseases issued by the 
United States Bureau of Animal Industry. Get as many of 
the following reference books as the library funds will warrant: 
Select first those which may be used as supplementary readers 
in your school. 

Soils. 

Soil Physics and Management— M osier and GiisiaJson,J. B. Lippin- 
cott Co., Philadelphia. 

Irrigation and Drainage — F. H. King, Macmillan Company. 
Manures and Fertilizers — Wheeler, Macmillan Co. 

Farm Crops. 

Field Crops — Wilson ct WarburtoJi, Webb Pub. Co. 

Forage and Fiber Crops — Thos. F. Hunt, Oransie .Tiidd Company. 

Productive Farm Crops — Montgomery, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Clovers — Thos. Shaw, Orange Judd Company, New York. 

Forage Crops — Piper, Macmillan Co. 

Alfalfa — Coburn, Orange Judd Co. 

Corn — Bowman and Crossley, Pub. by Authors. Ames, Iowa. 



ii APPENDIX 

Horticulture. 

Productive Orcharding — Scars, J. B. Lippincntt Co. 
The Principles of Fruit Growing — />. H. Bailey, Macmillan Co. 
The Pruning Book — L. H. Bailey, Macmillan Company, New York. 
Productive Vegetable Growing — Lloyd, J. B. Lippincott Co. 
Manual of Gardening — L. H. Bailey, Macmillan Co., New York. 
Bii.sh Fruits — F. W. Card, Macmillan Company, New York. 
American Apple Orchard — F. A. Waugh, Orange Judd Company. 
School and Home Gardening — Davis, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Animal Husbandry. 

Judging Live Stock — J. A. Craig, Kenyon Printing Companj', Des 
Moines, Iowa. 

Types and Breeds of Farm .Animals — C. S. Plumb, Ginn & Co., 
Boston. 

Feeds and Feeding — Henry S: Morrison, Published by the Authors, 
Madison, Wis. 

Producti\e Poultry Husbandry— Letri>, J. B. Lippincott Co, 

Productive Swine Husbandry — Day, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Productive Horse Husbandry — Gay, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Common Diseases of Farm Animals — Craig, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Productive Feeding of Farm Animals — Wall, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Dairying. 

Productive Dairying — Washburn, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

The Business of Dairying^C. B. Lane, Orange Judd Company. 

First Lessons in Dairying — Van Norman, Orange Judd Co. 

Bees and Insects. 

Economic Entomology — J. B. Stnilh, Lippincott Co., Philadelpliia. 
Insect Life — J. H. Comstock, D. Appleton & Company, New York. 
Productive Bee Keeping — Pellett, J. B. Lippinco+t Co. 

Cuclopedias. 

Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, 6 vols.— L. H Bailey, Mac- 
millan Company, New York. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, 4 Vols. — L. //. Bailey, Mac- 
millan Company, New York 

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture— TTtVcoj and Smith, Orange 
Judd Company, New York. 



REFERENCE BOOKS iii 



General. 



Agriculture and Life — Cromwell, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Among Country Schools — 0. J. Kern, Ginn & Co., New York. 

Farm Arithmetic — Bnrketl & Swartzel, Orange Judd Co. 

Productive Plant Husbandry^ — Dans, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life — Lipman, Macmillan Co. 

Physics of Agriculture — F. H. Kivg, published by the Author, 
Madison, \yis. 

Agricultural Engineering — Davidson, Webb Pub. Co. 

How to Choose a Farm — '/. F. Hunt, Macmillan Co., New York, 
N. Y. 

Farm Management — Boss, Webb Pub. Co. 

Our Trees: How to Know Them — Emerson and Weed. J. B. Lippin- 
cott Co., Philadelphia. 

Lights of the Farmer, Snyder, J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Farm Management, Wheeler, Macmillan Co. 

Co-operation in Agriculture, Powell, Macmillan Co. 

Rural Improvement, Waugh, Orange Judd Co. 

Farm Management, Card, Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, 
New York. 



TABLE II. 
LIST OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

The list of agricultural experiment stations follows. Mail 
may be addressed to the director of the station or merely 
to the station, as for instance — Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Wooster, Ohio. 

Write to the State agricultural experiment station of 
your State for the bulletins, and for information regarding 
any farm subject: feeds, fertilizers, sprays, diseases, insects, 
implements, live stock, crops, etc. 

Alabama — Alaska — Sitka. 

College Station: Auburn. Arizona — Tucson. 

Canebrake Station: Uniontown. Arkansas — Fayelteville. 

Tuskegee Station: Tuskegee. California — Berkeley. 
27 



IV 



APPENDIX 



Colorado — Fort Collins. 
Connecticut — 

State Station : Neiv Haven. 

Storrs Station: Storrs. 
Delaware — Newark. 
Florida — Gainesville. 
Georgia — Experiment. 
Guam — Island of Guam. 
Hawaii — Honolulu. 
Idaho — Moscow. 
Illinois — Urbana. 
Indiana — Lafayette. 
Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — 

State Station: Baton Rouge. 

Sugar Station: New Orleans. 

North La. Station: Calhoun. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland — College Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East Lansing. 
Minnesota — University Farm, 

St. Paul. 
Mississippi — AgriculturalC allege . 
Missouri — 

College Station: Columbia. 

Fruit Station: ilfountozn Grove. 
Montana — Bozeman. 



Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New Hampshire — Durham. 

New Jersey — New Brunswick. 

New Mexico — Agricultural College 

New York — 
State Station: Geneva. 
Cornell Station: Ithaca. 

North Carolina — 
State Station: Raleigh. 
College Station: West Raleigh. 

North Dakota — Agricultural Col- 
lege. 

Ohio — Wooster. 

Oklahoma — Stilhvater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State College. 

Porto Rico — Mayaguez. 

Rhode Island — Kingston. 

South Carolina — Clemson College. 

South Dakota — Brookings. 

Tennessee — Knoxville. 

Texas — College Station. 

Utah — Logan. 

Vermont — Burlington . 

Virginia — Blacksburg. 

Washington — Pullman. 

West Virginia — Morgantown. 

Wisconsin — Madison. 

W>oming — Laramie. 



In Canada write to Agricultural College at Guelph, Winnipeg, 
or St. Anne de Bellevue. Dominion Department of Agriculture, 
Ottawa. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES v 

TABLE III. 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. 

For Biting Insects — Paiso?is. 

1. Arsenate of Lead — 

Arsenate of lead 2 to 3 pounds 

Water, or Bordeaux, or lime-sulfur 50 gallons 

Many experiments have shown that well-made arsenate 
of lead is much the safest of all available arsenical poisons. 
Arsenate of lead is to be found on the market both as a 
powder and as a putty-like paste, which latter must be 
worked free in water before it is added to the lime-sulfur 
mixture or to Bordeaux mixture. The paste form of the 
poison is largely used at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds to each 
50 gallons of the liquid and is added to it after it has been well 
worked free in water. As there are numerous brands of 
arsenate of lead upon the market, the grower should be 
careful to purchase from reliable firms. 

2. Wet Paris Green — 

Paris green J pound 

Lime I pound 

Water 50 gallons 

If the above amount of Paris green is to be used with 50 
gallons of Bordeaux mixture the half pound of lime would 
be omitted. 

3. Dry Paris Green — 

Paris green 1 pound 

Powdered lime 20 pounds 

For Sucking Insects 

4. Kerosene Emulsion — 

Strong hard soap, shaved fine ^ pound 

Water 1 gallon 

Kerosene or crude petroleum 2 gallons 



vi APPENDIX 

Dissolve the soap in the water by boiling and immediately 
add it boiling hot, away from the fire, to the oil. The whole 
mixture is then agitated violently while hot. After five 
minutes' agitation the emulsion should be perfect, and the 
mixture will have increased from one-third to one-half in 
bulk and assume the consistency of cream. Well made, the 
emulsion will keep indefinitely and should be diluted only 
as wanted for use. 

How to Use the Emulsion. — During the growing period 
of summer, for most plant lice and other soft-bodied insects, 
dilute the emulsion with 15 parts of water; for the red spider 
and other plant-mites, the same, with the addition of 1 
ounce of flowers of sulfur to the gallon; for scale insects, the 
larger plant-bugs, and larvae, dilute with from 7 to 10 parts 
of water. Apply with spray pump. The greatest dilution 
noted gives 4 per cent of oil and the lesser dilutions approxi- 
mately 6 and 8 per cent. 

For Weevils in Corn, Beans, Etc. 

5. Bi=sulfide of Carbon. — One teaspoonful liquid bi- 
sulfide of carbon to each two cubic feet of tightly closed air 
space. The fumes settle downward in the space. Keep all 
flames away from the materials. 

6. Bordeaux Mixture. — Used as a fungicide to prevent 
diseases of plants. 

Copper sulfate (bluestone) 5 pounds 

Unslaked lime 5 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

This is called the 5-5-50 formula commonly used on 
apple trees in spring and summer. 

Dissolve the copper sulfate at the rate of 1 pound to one 
gallon of water. Slake the lime carefully until it is of a 
creamy consistency, add water to make one gallon per pound 
of lime. These two are called stock solutions and may be 
kept covered until needed. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES vii 

To make the Bordeaux mixture, dilute each as much as 
convenient before pouring them together. Pour the two 
diluted solutions at the same time into a third vessel. Strain 
it through a cloth before using it as a spray, Paris green or 
arsenate of lead may be mixed with this to prevent diseases 
and to poison insects at the same time, as on potatoes, toma- 
toes, and fruit trees. 

7. Lime=Sulfur (chiefly to kill San Jose scale and pre- 
vent disease). — 

Old Fonnula {without salt) — 

Powdered flowers of sulfur 15 pounds 

Burned lime 15 to 20 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Wet the sulfur and slake the lime. Add these to 10 gal- 
lons of boiling water. Boil for 40 to 60 minutes or until well 
dissolved. Then water is added to make 50 gallons. This is 
for winter use on orchards, and is used while warm. 

Concentrated Lime-Sulfur — 

Powdered sulfur 30 pounds 

Burned lime 15 pounds 

Water 15 gallons 

Add the wet sulfur and the Ume, after starting it to slaking, 
to 15 gallons of boihng water, and boil until dissolved. This 
may be kept in a closed vessel until wanted. A layer of oil 
on the top of the liquid will keep away the air sufficiently. 
This is diluted with about 9 times its volmne of water for 
winter use on apple trees. The rule for dilution requires 
that the specific gravity of the Hquid be found. Divide the 
decimal part of this number by three hundredths ( . 03) and 
the quotient will tell the number of times to dilute the Hquid. 
For example, if the specific gravity equals 1 . 27, divide . 27 
by .03, giving 9. Then dilute the liquid with 9 times its 
volume of water for winter use. As a summer spray on 
apples and potato vines it should be diluted with 3 times as 
much water as for winter use. 



viii APPENDIX 

The boiling of lime-sulfur is done in an open kettle with 
fire beneath, or in a barrel or tank with steam escaping from 
a pipe in the bottom of the liquid. 

Commercial Lime-Sulfur. — A number of commercial prep- 
arations of lime-sulfur are sold. Each is supposed to be of 
about the strength given in the above formula for ''Concen- 
trated Lime-Sulfur." The strength and the directions for 
dilution should be obtained with the liquid. As a general 
rule it is diluted with 9 times its volume of water for winter 
use. 

Self-Boiled Lime-Sulfur — 

Fresh burned lime 8 pounds 

Powdered sulfur 8 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water 
poured on to almost cover it. As soon as the lime begins to 
slake the sulfur should be added, after first running it through 
a sieve to break up the lumps, if any are present. The mix- 
ture should be constantly stirred and more water (3 or 4 
gallons) added as needed to form at first a thick paste and 
then gradually a thin paste. The lime will supply enough 
heat to boil the mixture several minutes. As soon as the 
lime is well slaked, water should be added to cool the mix- 
ture and prevent further cooking. It is then ready to be 
strained into the spray tank, diluted, and applied. It is 
used in the above strength, 8-8-50, as a summer spray on 
peaches, plums, and cherries. 

Powdered Lime-Sulfur. — A commercial form of powdered 
lime-sulfur is now on the market. It is to be mixed with 
water for winter spraying and may take the place of the com- 
mercial liquid as it is somewhat cheaper. 



QUANTITY AND WEIGHTS 



IX 



TABLE IV. 



QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE, AND LEGAL 
WEIGHTS. 

Amount Lbs. per bu. 

Name of seed. per acre. usually. 

Alfalfa 30 lbs. 60 

Barley 8-10 pks. 48^ 

Beans 3- 6 pks. 60 

Blue grass, alone 20-25 lbs. 14 

Buckwheat 3-5 pks. 48^ 

Clover, alone 10-15 lbs. 60^ 

Corn, shelled, checkrow 6-8 qts. 56* 

Corn, for ensilage 10 qts. 

Cotton, Upland 4- 8 pks. 32* 

CowTJeas 4-6 pks. 60* 

Flaxseed 2-4 pks. 56* 

Mangels 5-8 lbs. 

Millet 1-3 pks. 505 

Oats 2-3bu. 32* 

Oats and Canada peas 5-6 pks. each 

Onions 5- 6 lbs. 62-575 

Peas, field 60 

Potato 6-18 bu. 60* 

Potatoes, sweet, bedded iy>- 3 bu. 46-60 

Rice, rough 1- 3 bu. 43-45 

Rye 3-8 pks. 56* 

Soybeans 4-6 pks. 60* 

Timothy 10-20 lbs. 45* 

Timothy and clover mixture 10-12 lbs. each 

Turnips or rape 3-5 lbs. 

Vetch and grain mixture 4-5 pks. each 

Vetch, Augusta 3-4 pks. 60* 

Wheat 6-9 pks. 60 

' Pennsylvania 47 varies in a few States from 45 to 50. 
2 Varies in different Slates from 42 to 56. 
' Xew Jersey 64. 
* \arios 28 to 3.3 H. 
5 A few exceptions. 

Problems. — 1. At the present market prices for the seeds of six of 
the crops .sown in your section, calculate the cost of seed for ten ncrcs 
of each. 

2. Find the legal weights for seeds that are shown in this tabl*^ to 
vary, and note the standard for your State. 



APPENDIX 






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RULES xi 



TABLE VL 

RULES. 

Cubic Measure for the Farmer. 

231 cubic inches make one liquid gallon. 

2,150.4 cubic inches make one bushel. 

The standard bushel of the United States is cylindrical, 
8 in. deep and 18^^ in. diameter. 

l}4 cubic feet are allowed for one bushel of shelled com 
or grain. Multiply the cubic feet in a bin by % to get the 
number of bushels. 

23^ cubic feet are allowed for one bushel of corn on the 
cob. 2 measured bushels of cob corn equals one of shelled. 

A crate 10 x 11 x 20 inches inside is used for a bushel of 
onions, potatoes, or other vegetables. 

A ton of hay on a wagon rack measures about 512 cubic 
feet. 

A ton of newly stored hay, settled two weeks, measures 
73^ feet cube, or about 422 cu. ft. 

A ton of hay in stack, settled 30 to 60 days, is about 
7 feet cube, or 343 to 380 cu. ft. 

After hay has settled several months it measures 270 
cubic feet to the ton. 

Measuring Land. 

One acre of land measures 160 square rods, or 4,840 
square yards, or 43,560 square feet. 

When the length of a field is known in rods, the width 
to take to make one acre is found when the given length is 
divided into 160. For example, if a com field is 40 rods long, 
an acre of it will be four rods wide (160-4-40 = 4). 



:di APPENDIX 

TABLE VII. 
FERTILIZER FORMULAS. 

The object in the preparation of fertilizer formulas is 
to show the kinds and amounts of materials to use. Any one 
formula is not the best for all conditions; these vary as widely 
as the soils and different methods of management. 

Field Corn. 

Ground Bone 250 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 500 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 250 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 1 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 7 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 12 per 
cent; Potash, 12.5 per cent. 

Application, 200 to 300 pounds per acre on manured 
soils; 300 to 500 on medium soils without manure. For 
forage corn or ensilage, the nitrogen should be increased. 

Oats. 

Nitrate of Soda 150 lbs. 

Tankage 200 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 600 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 50 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 3.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 8 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10 per cent; 
Potash, 2 . 5 per cent. 

Application on good soils, 200 to 300 pounds per acre; 
300 to 500 pounds per acre on medium soils without manure. 

Wheat. 

Dried Blood 150 lbs. 

Tankage 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 700 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 50 lbs. 

26 



FERTILIZER FORMULAS xiii 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 2.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 9 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10 per cent; 
Potash, 2 . 5 per cent. 

Application on good soils, 200 to 300 pounds per acre. 
On medium soils, without manure, 300 to 500 pounds per 
acre. 

Early Potatoes. 

Nitrate of Soda. 100 lbs. 

Sulfate of Ammonia 100 lbs. 

Tankage 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 500 lbs. 

Sulfate or Muriate of Potash 200 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 4 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 6 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 8 per cent; 
Potash (actual), 10 per cent. 

Application may range from 800 to 1200 pounds per acre. 

Sweet Potatoes. 

Tankage 300 lbs. 

Dried Blood 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 400 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 200 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 2.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 5.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 9 per 
cent; Potash, 10 per cent. 

Application per acre, from 500 to 800 pounds. 

Early Tomatoes and Market Garden Crops. 

Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. 

Ground Bone 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 550 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 100 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 4 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 7 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 9 per cent; 
Potash, 5 per cent. 

Application per acre, 800 pounds. 



xiv APPENDIX 

Timothy Hay, Top Dressing. 

Nitrate of Soda 500 lbs. 

Ground Bone 200 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 200 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 100 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 8 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 3 percent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 6.5 percent; 
Potash, 5 per cent. 

Application, 200 to 300 pounds per acre. 

Fruits and Berries. 

Ground Bone 250 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 450 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 300 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 1 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 5.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10.5 per 
cent; Potash, 15 per cent. 

For medium or good soils, the application of this formula 
to the large fruits need not begin until the trees come in 
bearing, after which an annual application of from 300 to 
500 pounds per acre will furnish an abundance of the mineral 
elements. For berries, this formula may be applied at the 
rate of 400 to 600 pounds per acre previous to setting the 
plants, and annually thereafter. 

Fertilizer Equivalents. — The nitrogen in 1 pound nitrate 
of soda is about the same as in 2}^ pounds cottonseed meal; 
1 pound sulfate of ammonia = 1^ pounds nitrate of soda; 
1 pound dried blood = If pounds cottonseed meal; 1 pound 
nitrate of soda = 13^ pounds dried blood. 



DIGESTIBILITY AND FERTILITY x 

TABLE VIII. 

AVERAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS AND THEIR 
FERTILITY/ 



Name of feed 



Alfalfa, green 

Alfalfa, hay 

Alsike (in bloom), green 

Beets, sugar 

Brewers' grains (dried) 

Canada pea meal 

Cotton seed meal 

Corn ensilage 

Corn fodder, green 

Cornmeal (all) 

Corn stalks with ears 

Com stalks without ears 

Com and cob meal 

Cow peas, green 

Crimson clover, hay 

Dried beet pulp 

Gluten meal 

Kentucky blue grass, hay... . 
Linseed meal (old process).... 

Malt sprouts 

Mangels 

Oats 

Oat forage, in bloom, green.. . 

Oat straw 

Peas and oats, green 

Red clover, green 

Red clover, hay 

Red top, hay 

Ruta-bagas 

Rye 

Timothy, green 

Timothy, hay 

Wheat 

Wheat bran (winter) 

Wheat middlings 



Dry 
matter 
in 
100 
lbs. 



28.2 
93.6 
25.2 
13.5 
91.3 
89.5 
93.0 
26.4 
20.7 
85.0 
57.8 
59.5 
84.9 
16.4 
90.4 
91.6 
90.5 
86.0 
90.2 
90.5 
9.1 
89.6 
25.0 
90.8 
20.3 
29.2 
84.7 
91.1 
11.4 
91.3 
38.4 
86.8 
89.5 
88.5 



Digestible parts 
in 100 lbs. 



Pro- 
tein 



3.6 

11.7 

2.6 

1.3 

20.0 

16.8 

37.6 

1.4 

1.0 

6.7 

2.5 

1.4 

4.4 

1.8 

10.5 

4.1 

29.7 

4.4 

30.2 

20.3 



1.0 



10.7 
1.1 
1.3 
1.8 
2.9 
7.1 
4.8 
1.0 
9.5 
1.5 
2.8 
8.8 
12.1 
13.0 



Carbo- 

,^. 

( + fat 
X2.25) 



13.0 
43.1 
12.5 
10.0 
45.7 
53.3 
43.0 
15.7 
12.8 
72.2 
37.3 
32.7 
66.5 

9.1 
37.6 
65.1 
56.2 
41.8 
47.5 
49.1 

5.9 
58 
13 
41 
11 
16 

41.8 
49.1 

8.5 
72.1 
21.2 
45.3 
70.8 
43.4 
55.8 



Fertility in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 
(N) 



7.7 

26.1 

6.2 

2.9 

40.0 

32.3 

72.5 

4.3 

2.9 

14.7 

7.2 

6.1 

13.6 

3.8 

24.3 

12.9 

54.8 

12.5 

54.2 

42.1 

2.2 

18.2 

2.6 

5.8 

3.8 

7.0 

19.7 

12.6 

1.9 

18.1 

5.0 

9.4 

19.0 

25.1 

27.0 



Phos- 
phoric 

acid 
(P2O6) 



1.3 
6.1 
1.1 
0.8 
16.1 
8.2 
30.4 
1.1 
1.1 
6.3 
5.4 
3.8 
5.7 
1.3 
4.0 
2.2 
3.3 
4.0 
16.6 
17.4 
0.9 
7.8 
1.3 
3.0 
1.5 
1.5 
5.5 
3.6 
1.2 
8.6 
2.6 
3.3 
5.5 
26.9 
26.3 



Potash 
(K2O) 



5.6 

17.9 

2.0 

3.7 

2.0 

9.9 

15.8 

3.7 

3.9 

4.7 

8.9 

10.9 

4.7 

4.6 

13.1 

3.1 

0.5 

15.7 

13.7 

19.9 

3.8 

4.8 

3.8 

17.7 

5.0 

4.8 

18.7 

10.2 

4.9 

5.8 

7.6 

14.2 

8.7 

15.2 

15.3 



In quarts the dry feeds to make a pound would be: gluten meal 0.8, linseed 
meal 0.9, cottonseed meal, pea meal, cornmeal each 0.7, wheat 0.5, rye 0.6, oats 
1, wheat midillings 1.3, bran 2, malt sprouts 1.7, brewers' grains 1.7. 

1 Chiefly adapted from W. A. Henry's " Feeds and Feeding." 



APPENDIX 

TABLE IX. 
FEEDING STANDARDS. 

(Wolff-Lehmann) 
POUNDS PER DAY PER 1000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 



Animal 



Total 

dry 

matter 



Protein 



Carbo- 
hydrates 
(+fat 
X2.25) 



Horse, at light work 

Horse, at medium work 

Horse, at hard work 

Cattle, fattening, first period 

Cattle, fattening, second period . . 
Cattle, fattening, third period 

Milk cows, 11 lbs. milk daily 

Milk cows, 16.5 lbs. milk dailj'. . . 

Milk cows, 22 lbs. milk daily 

Milk cows, 27.5 lbs. milk daily. . . 

Lambs, 60 to 75 lbs., 2-4 months. 



Sheep, fine v.'ool 

Sheep, fattening, first period. . . 
Sheep, fattening, second period. 

Swine : 

2- 5 mos. 50-100 lbs 

5- 8 mos. 150-200 lbs 

8-12 mos. 200-250 lbs 

Swine, fattening, first period. . . 
Swine, fattening, second period. 
Swine, fattening, third period . . 



Growing C.\ttle — Dairy 
Breeds. 

Age, Average live weight, 

months. per head. 

2- 3 150 pounds.. . 

3- 6 300 pounds.. . 

6-12 500 pounds. . . 

12-18 700 pounds. . . 

18-24 900 pounds. . . 



20.0 
24.0 
26.0 

30.0 
30.0 
26.0 

25.0 
27.0 
29.0 
32.0 

25.0 

23.0 
30.0 
28.0 



40.0 
30.0 
26.0 
36.0 
32.0 
25.0 



23.0 
24.0 
27.0 
26.0 
26.0 



1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

2.5 
3.0 
2.7 

1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 

3.2 

1.5 
3.0 
3.5 



6.5 
3.8 
3.0 
4.5 
4.0 
2.7 



4.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 



10.4 
12.3 
15.1 

16.1 
16.0 
16.5 

10.7 
11.9 
14.1 
14.8 

15.6 

12.7 
16.1 
15.8 



27.3 
20.9 
17.5 
26.5 
25.1 
19.9 



17.0 
15.0 
13.6 
13.4 
12.6 



COMPOSITION OF F.\EM MANURES xvii 



TABLE X. 
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FARM MANURES. 



Farm manures 



Pounds per thousand 



o o."3 






ss 



Cow manure (fresh) . . 
Horse manure (fresh) 
Sheep manure (fresh) 
Hog manure (fresh) . . . 
Hen droppings (fresh) 
Mixed stable manure. . 



3.4 

5.8 
8.3 
4.5 
16.3 
5.0 



1.6 
2.8 
2.3 
1.9 
15.4 
2.6 



4.0 


$39.00 


5.3 


42.00 


6.7 


46.00 


6.0 


80.00 


8.5 




6.3 





$1.91 
3.13 
4.20 
2.56 
9.12 
2.88 



' Considering nitrogen at 20 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 
4J cents per pound. 



TABLE XL 
DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING FRUIT. 

(If planted in rows each way the distances usuall}^ range 
in feet about as given here.) 



Fruit trees. 



Small fruits. 



Apples 30-40 

Apricots 15-20 

Cherries 15-25 

Oranges 25-30 

Peaches 15-20 

Pears 20-30 

Pears, dwarf 10-15 

Plums 15-20 

Quinces 10-12 



Blackberries 4i-7 

Cranberries 1 -2 

Currants 4 -4^ 

Gooseberries 4 -4^ 

Grapes 6 -12 

Raspberries, black 3i-5 

Raspberries, red 3J-4 

Strawberries, hedge row . .IJ-S 
Strawberries, matted row . 1 -4 



XVIU 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XII. 

USUAL DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING 
VEGETABLES. 



Vegetables 



Asparagus 

Beans, bush and pole 

Beet, early 

Beet, stock, sugar. . . . 

Cabbage, early 

Cabbage, late 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Corn, sweet 

Celery 

Cucumber and melons 

Egg plant 

Lettuce, curly 

Lettuce, head 

Onion 

Parsley 

Peas 

Pepper 

Potato 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Squash and pumpkin 

Sweet potato 

Turnip 

Tomato 



Rows, 
feet apart 



3-4 

2-4 
li-2 
1^-2 
2-2^ 

3 
l§-2 
2-2^ 
3-3^ 
3-4 
4-6 

3 
1-2 

n 

H-2 
1-2 
1-3 
2h 

2^-3 

1-1^ 

4' 

1^-2 

1-U 
6-8 
3-4 

n-2 

3-4 



Distance in 
rows, feet 



1-2 
1 

drills 

thin drills 

1^-2 

3 
drills 
li-2 
1-2 

i-1 

4-6 

3 

thin drills 

drills 
drills 
drills 

i-u 

drills 
2-4 
drills 
drills 
6-8 
2 
drills 
3-4 



Plants 
per acre 



8712-14520 
4840 

8712-14520 

10890-29040 

4840 

58080 

11616 
2722-5445 

5445-7260 
2722-4840 



APPENDIX xix 



TABLE XIII. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS FOR ADDITIONAL 
EXERCISES AND PROJECTS. 

The following projects and field and laboratory exercises 
will be suggestive to those who wish to further supplement 
the text. These are arranged according to the numbers of 
the chapters to which they are most closely related. They 
may be taken up in connection with their corresponding 
chapters if desired. 

CHAPTER I. — PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. 

1. Tie a piece of bologna skin over the top of a long glass 
funnel tube from a chemical laboratory. Fill the bowl of the 
funnel with dense sugar syrup. Place it with the membrane 
beneath the surface in a glass of water. Then support the 
tube in some way and observe the osmosis of the two liquids. 
With a piece of rubber tubing splice on more glass tubing 
and see how high you can conduct the liquid before the 
action stops. 

CHAPTER II. — PLANT IMPROVEMENT. — WEEDS. 

1. Make a study of a fanning mill at a dealer's or at some 
farm. Study the sieves and the fan. Try the machine with 
a quantity of uncleaned seeds and note its work. 

2. Let home projects be started in the ear-row method 
of improving corn, and in the hill-row method of increasing 
the yield of potatoes. 

3. IVIake a list of bad weeds observed at your home farm 
or elsewhere, seen in the following places: (1) roadsides and 
fenee rows; (2) in grain fields; (3) in cultivated fields; (4) in 
hay fields; (5) in pastures. 

4. Make a list of the ways you have seen for storing 
seeds over winter. 

28 



XX APPENDIX 

CHAPTER III. — PLANT PROPAGATION. 

1. Pupils may start home projects in the growing of 
nursery trees of apple, peach, and plum trees and also grape 
vines. 

2. Bush fruits may be propagated at home for sale to 
others. 

CHAPTER V. KINDS OF SOIL. 

1, In regions where soil is quite variable, students should 
make lists of trees or other plants which thrive best on the 
different types of soil. 

2. Trials of special crops may be made on different types 
of soil to show the value of each for certain purposes. 

CHAPTER VI. — SOIL MOISTURE, 

1. Home projects should be started to show the effects 
of good and bad methods of tillage in preparing the soil and 
caring for some culture crops, say corn, potatoes, tomatoes, 
and others. 

CHAPTER VII. LAND DRAINAGE. 

1. Let root systems be studied to prove that drainage 
deepens the root systems, and reduces injury from drought. 

2. In springtime test the fact that drainage warms the 
soil. Use a thermometer or observe the early growth of 
plants on both drained and undrained places. 

3. Home or neighborhood projects in tile drainage may 
be planned, surveyed, and the cost estimated. 

CHAPTER VIII. — SOIL IMPROVEMENT. 

1. Study the different types of plows, harrows, culti- 
vators and other tillage machinery at a dealers or on farms. 

2. List all the farms in the community that grow green 
manure crops. What crops are growni? Do they all find it 
beneficial? 

3. What farms use lime for soil improvement? What 



APPENDIX xxi 

kinds are used? Which kinds are preferred? For what crops 
is the hming done? Does it help them? Let pupils make 
surveys to obtain answers to these questions. 

4. ]\Iake a survey regarding the care, management, and 
uses of barnyard manure. 

5. Make a similar survey regarding use of commercial 
fertilizers — kinds, grades, prices, for what crops, benefits, 
home mixing, ingredients purchased. 

6. Start home projects to prove the benefits of liming, 
use of barnyard manure, commercial fertilizers. 

CHAPTER IX. — SYSTEMS OF CROPPING. 

1. Make a survey to determine what rotations in crop- 
ping are practiced in the community. What are the best 
ones? 

2. Long projects in crop rotations, may be started in 
connection with those in the preceding chapter. 

CHAPTER X. — FARM CROPS. 

L Determine how many of the different classes of crops 
enumerated at the first of this chapter are growTi in the 
community. Which are important crops? which minor crops? 

2. What farmers are using the soiling crop system, wholly 
or partially, in the summer season? 

3. Start projects with pigs, cows, or calves, to compare 
the expense and value of soiling systems and pastures, and 
perhaps summer silage. 

4. Start projects in the growth of crops that should be 
encouraged in the region. 

5. Start projects in pasture improvement using methods 
suggested at the last of the chapter. 

CHAPTER XI. — ALFALFA. 

1. Let pupils make surveys among the farmers to deter- 
mine how many of the alfalfa rules are followed. 

2, Start alfalfa projects to bring out the most important 



xxii APPENDIX 

ones of these — liming, inoculation, frequent cutting. In- 
clude also the harrowing of stubble after cutting to keep 
dowTi weeds and conserve moisture. 

CHAPTER XII. — COTTON PRODUCTION. 

1. In cotton sections, students should make surveys 
showing varieties grown, soil preparation, tillage methods, 
damage from insects and diseases, time of picking, yields, 
methods of marketing, and cropping systems. 

2, Cotton growing projects may be started with records 
to be kept along all of these lines and including the cost of 
the crop. The combating of the boll-weevil and other 
enemies should be planned in these projects. 

CHAPTER XIII. CORN. 

1. Corn growing projects, when started, should be planned 
to include all the essential points in growing the crop. Records 
of time, cost, yield, etc., should be kept. 

CHAPTER XIV. SMALL GRAINS. 

1. Mount all the different types of grain obtainable, 
using the methods described in this chapter. 

2. Let some pupils grow rice, flax, or any other grain 
crops that are not well known in the region. Have students 
study these. 

CHAPTER XV. POTATOES. 

1. Let pupils combine in making a survey of the commu- 
nity on Irish potatoes or sweet potatoes or both. Determine 
varieties, soil maintenance, preparation of soil, planting 
rotations, cost of crops, methods of combating insects and 
diseases, yields, methods of marketing, storage, etc. 

2. Home projects with a small area of either of these 
crops should be started. Let competitions be started in 
yield, quality, and cost. 



APPENDIX xxiii 

CHAPTER XVI. — TOBACCO FOR MARKET. 

1. If tobacco is a market crop of the region, divide the 
list of growers among the pupils and make a survey to deter- 
mine methods of preparing soil, starting plants, transplanting, 
tillage, fighting insects and diseases, suckering and topping, 
harvesting, curing, sorting, packing, storing, marketing, etc. 

CHAPTER XVII. — FORESTRY. 

1. Let pupils see how many of the forest influences men- 
tioned can be discovered in the region. 

2. Study the trees of the region and make a list of all. 
Learn to know them at sight. 

3. Home projects may be conducted with forest tree 
nurseries. 

CHAPTER XVIII. — GARDENING. 

L Several plans for home gardens should be drawn by 
each student. These may be compared and discussed. 

2. A garden survey of the region may be made to deter- 
mine a number of points: (1) How nearly the home is 
supplied with winter and summer vegetables; (2) what crops 
are grown for market; (3) what crops are not grown that 
should be grown; (4) manuring or other fertilizing practiced; 
(5) succession cropping plans; (6) companion cropping plans; 
(7) leading varieties of the main crops; (8) methods used in 
preventing damage from insects and diseases; (9) methods 
of harvesting; (10) methods of marketing; (11) methods of 
curing, drying, and storing; (12) what seeds are saved for 
future planting, and how. 

3. There are many home garden projects that can be 
pursued by both boys and girls. 

CHAPTER XIX. — FRUIT PRODUCTION. 

1. Practice pruning of orchard trees for a few growers. 

2. Make a survey of the varieties of fruits that succeed 
well in the region. 



xxiv APPENDIX 

3. Have exercises in grading and packing fruit. 

4. Study methods of storing and of marketing as practiced 
m the region. 

CHAPTER XX. INSECTS. 

1. Observe and report damage from insect enemies. 

2. Report examples of birds feeding their young on insect 
larvae. 

3. Report damage to birds' nests by cats, dogs, and other 
enemies of our bird friends. 

CHAPTER XXI.^ — DISEASES OF PLANTS. 

1. Make up a number of the spray mixtures and use them 
on nearby trees as needed. 

2. By means of a rapid survey calculate the loss from 
each of the worst plant diseases of the region. 

CHAPTER XXII. IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS. 

1. Report observations of the bad effects of crossing. 

2. Report examples of the money values of pure bred 
stock as compared to scrubs. 

3. Have pupils bring in examples of variation in poultry, 
pigs, etc. 

CHAPTER XXIII. HORSES. 

1. students should visit the stables of a veterinarian in 
a group. He will be glad to show cases of sickness or injury 
of horses in his care. He can show you specimens and give 
lessons on teeth, horses' feet, etc. 

2. Get a good horseman in the district to demonstrate 
with light and heavy horses the good and poor points of 
each individual. 

CHAPTER XXIV CATTLE. 

1. Students should be taken to a farm where beef cattle 
are found. Practice picking the best and the poorest for the 
type, both as feeding for beef or as breeding animals. 



APPENDIX XXV 

2. Similar trips should be taken for the study of dairy 
animals. 

3. Make a list of all the breeds of cattle in the region, 
either grade or pure-bred. Determine for what purpose they 
are each kept. 

4. If possible arrange with some parents or with some 
bank to finance home projects in calf raising. 

CHAPTER XXV SHEEP. 

1. Ascertain by a student survey what breeds of sheep 
are found in the region. Let comparisons of these be made. 

2. Make a list of all the families in the district that keep 
dogs, and the number for each family. How many of these 
are known to worry or to kill sheep? Does this influence the 
sheep industry? 

3. Sheep feeding experiments may be started as home 
projects. 

CHAPTER XXVI SWINE. 

1. Enumerate the number of swine of each breed repre- 
sented in the district. Which are most popular? Which make 
the most rapid gains in weight up to six months of age? Or 
which ones reach the weight of 100 pounds first? 

2. Home projects in management and feeding of pigs 
should be started if possible. Establish competitions among 
the members of a pig club for the district. 

CHAPTER XXVII POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 

1. Start contests in the hatching of chicks at home by 
the natural method or by incubators. 

2. Let students draw plans for the construction of chick 
brooders and then make them at home or at school. 

3. Contests may be started in the preservation of eggs. 

4. A poultry exhibit and fair may be held at one of the 
homes or at school if a suitable place is available. This may 
be on Saturday. Contests in judging may be conducted in 
this connection. 



xxvi APPENDIX 

CHAPTER XXVIII — BEE-KEEPING. 

1. Make a census of all the colonies in the district. WTiat 
is the honey output of each place for one season? 

2. If only a few bees are found in the district calculate 
the loss to the district, supposing that each farmer could 
easily keep twenty-five colonies. 

3. Ascertain the returns from comb honey and from 
extracted honey. Compare these methods in yields and 
money value. Which is most followed in the district? 
Why? 

4. Make a list of the chief honey plants in the district — 
early, medium, and late. 

CHAPTER XXIX FEEDS AND FEEDING. 

1. Make up a complete list of stock feeds grown in the 
district. Classify them as concentrates, roughage, root crops, 
and others. Determine if possible what quantity of each is 
raised, and their market values. 

2. What kinds and amounts of concentrates and haj^ are 
purchased from town by feeders in the district? What is the 
cause of this? Is there an}^ good reason for the purchase of 
feeds that could be raised on the farms? 

3. Make a list of the pasture crops grown in the district. 

CHAPTER XXX CATI^LE PRODUCTS. 

1. Home projects in the weighing, sampling, and testing 
of milk should be carried on by students. 

2. Let students compare the methods of churning they 
have observed at home and elsewhere with those given in 
this chapter. Give reasons for differences. 

3. If cream separators are found in the district, let 
students inquire regarding their success or failure; then 
see if they can aid in solving the troubles if any are 
found? 



APPENDIX xxvii 

CHAPTER XXXI — THE BUSINESS OF FARMING. 

1. Make a survey of the farms in the district to deter- 
mine to what extent the losses mentioned in this chapter are 
found. 

2. Make a list of farms where careful accounts of cost of 
production are kept. Why do not all keep such accounts? 

3. Make a list of young men who have left their farms 
in the last few years and those who are now considering doing 
so. What reasons can be assigned for this? 

ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MECHANICS. 

1. Determine the kinds and amount of private work done 
by farmers or others to help maintain or improve the public 
roads along their places. How many use road drags on their 
own roads? 

2. Make a list of farms in the district where there are 
convenient and suitable rooms or buildings for use as work- 
shops. 

3. Make a survey to determine how many large field 
machines are bought each year in the district; also how long 
these last on the farms. Get some data regarding the cost 
of repairs for these machines. 

4. Boys should carry on home projects in the paint- 
ing, repair, and maintenance of the farm machinery for 
several months. 

5. Exercises should be conducted in the over-hauling 
of farm engines; installing of belt machines and power; 
using concrete on the farm; structure of gates, poultry 
houses, feeding, etc. 



29 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, Preface, v 
Aberdeen Angus, 281, 282 
Accounts, keeping, 3(34 

to keep, 3G5 
Adults of insects, 221, 223, 224 
^-Eolian soil, 51 

Agricultural experiment station, iv 
Agriculture, teaching of, 1 
Air for germination, 17 

forming soil, 45, 46 

in soil, 17 
Airing milk, 350 
Alfalfa as green feed, 111 

a soil improver, 111 

a chapter on. 111 

curing of, 114 

cutting, 113, 116 

for soiling, 99 

inoculation for, 112, 116 

in rotation, 94 

loading, 114 

raking, 115 

rotts with nodules, 113 

rules for, 115 

seeding, 112, 116 

stacking, 115 
Alluvial soil, 47, 50 
American Merinos, 295, Fig. 1R2 

saddle horse, 268, 270 

trotter, 268, 269 
Ammonia, sulfate of, 84 
Analysis of feeds, 330 
Animal production, section on, 259 

products, section on, 344 
Animals as soil formers, 45, 50 

composition of, 327 

improvement of, 259 
Antenna; of insects, 220 
Annual defined, 20 

weeds, 28 
Appendages of insects, 220 
Appendix tables, i 
Apple borer, flat head, 235 
round head, 237 

budding, 37 

root grafts, 36 

rust, 250, 251, 253 

scab, 249, 250 

and rust, 233 

spraying for, 256, 257, 25S 

scions, 35, 37 

stocks, 35 

varieties 213 

worm, 232, 233 
Apples picked from ladders, 218 

propagation of, 35 

studying, 214 
Aquarium, 13, 14 
Arbor Day planting, 188 
Arithmetical problems, see Problems 
Arsenate of lead, 258, 394 



Ashes and sour soil, 78 

plant food in, 78 
Ayrshire cattle, 288, 289 

Babcock test, 355 

principles of, 356, 357 
outfit, 357 
Bacon type of swine, 299, 300 
Bacteria in milk, 347 
Bailey, Dr. L. H., quoted, 204 
Balance in Nature, 13 
Balanced rations, 340 
Barley, 158 
Barn, a clean, 348, 349 

bad construction of, 348 

good construction of, 348 

manures, value of, xviii 
Barns, ventilation of, 349, 350 
Barnyard manure, see Manure 
Bean weevil, 221 
Bee colony, 323 

hives, 323, 325 

-keeping, chapter on, 321 

studies, 326 

structure, 324 
Beef breeds, 279 

cattle, fattening, 337 

cuts of, 344, 345 
Bees and insects carry pollen, IS, 
19 

life of, 323 

winter care of, 326 
Beet pulp, 336 
Belgian horse, 266 
Beneficial insects, 239 
Berkshire swine, 299, 300 
Berries, fertilizer for, xiv 
Biennial defined, 20 

weeds, 29 
Birds as insect eaters, 240 

beneficial h'awks, 242 

chapter on, 240 

encouraging, 243 

enemies of, 244 

food habits of. 241 

food of, 243 

harmful, 241 

houses, 244 

laws protecting, 244 

seeds eaten by, 243 
Bi-sulfide of carbon, 231, 395 
Biting insects, 220 

sprays for, 394 
Black Minorca pair, 307 

spot of peach, 247 
Blackberries, 216, 217 
Blake's, Prof. M. A., list of peaches, 

212 
Blossoms, see Flower 
Bone, ground, 84 
Books, reference, 60, i 



XXX 



INDEX 



Bordeaux mixture, 233, 258, v, vi 

Bottling mill< and cream, 351 

Boys' and girls' clubs, 

Brahma hen, 308 

Bran, 335 

Breed, defined, 259 

Breeding, laws of, 259 

Breeds, beef, 279 

keeping pure, 259 

of bees, 322 

of horses, 263 

sheep, 293, 294, 296 

swine, 301, 302, 304 
Brewers' grains, 336 
Brooder houses. Fig. 196 
Brown rot of peach, 247, 248 

Swiss cattle, 284, 285 
Budding apple trees, 37 

peaches and plums, 38, 39, 40 

sticks, 37, 39 
Bud selection, 23 
Buds, fruit, 210, 212 
Bulletins, Farmers', how to secure 
3, 390 
how to use, 3 

referred to, see end of 
each chapter 
Bushel measure, xi 
Business of farming, 360 

success, elements of, 363 
Buttermilk, 353, 354, 356, 359 
Butts of corn, 137 
Buying feeds, 342 

By-products and mill feeds, 335, 
337 

Cab horses, 266 

Cables, how made, 376 

Calf feeding, 337 

California, school gardening in, 192 

Calves, dairy, 285 

feed for, xvi 
Cambium layer of wood, 36 
Capillary moisture, 60-64 

experiment, 64 
Carbohydrates, 329 

and fat in feeds, xv 
Carbon bi-sulphide, 231; x 

dioxide, 13, 14 

in plants, 13, 14 
Carniolan bees, 322 
Casein of milk, 345 
Catalo hybrid cattle, 282 
Catch crops, 90, 91 
Caterpillar-hunting beetle, 239 
Caterpillars, 224, 225 
Cattle, chapter on, 279 

feed for, xvi 

judging, 289, 290 

points of, shown, 289 

products, chapter on, 344 

types of, 279 
Caucasian bees, 322 
Cedar apple, 251, 252 
Cellulose, 329 
Cereal crops, 97 
Certified milk, 352 
Changes in insects, 223 
Cheese-making, 355 



Chester white swine, 201, 302 
Cheviot sheep, 294, 295, 296 
Chick creep, 388 

Chicken houses, 313, Figs 195. 
199 
inside of, 314 
location of, 314 
plan for. Fig. 199 

varieties. Figs. 189-194 
to keep, 313 
Chickens, varieties of, 311-313 
Chinch bug, 231 
Chlorophyl, 11, 12 
Cholera, hog, 306 
Churning, steps in, 354 
Cicada captured, 241 
Clayey soil, 52, 53, 54, 58, 59, 63 
Cleaning seed, 22 
Cleveland Bay horses, 266 
Clothes moth, 230 
Clover, alsike, 106 

compared with standard, 340, 
341 

crimson, 91, 106 

for soiling, 99 

in rotation, 92, 93 

methods of starting, 107 

nodules, 103, 104 

red, 106 

when to cut, 107 

white, 106 
Clubs, corn, 151, 152 
Clydesdales, 265 
Coach horses described, 266 
Coarse wooled sheep, 293 
Cob of corn, 139 
Cocoon, 223, 225 
Codling-moth, 232, 233 

spraying for, 256, 257, 
258 
Cold frame, 194, 195, 196 
Colluvial soil, 51 
Colony of bees, 323 
Column system of accounts, 364, 

365 
Commercial fertilizers, 83 
Community centre, 6 
Composition of animals, 327 

corn, 331 

feeds, xvi 

fertilizers, xii, xiv . 

manures, xvii 

milk, 345, 346, 347 
Composts of manure, 82, 83 
Concentrated feeds, 332, 334-336 
Concrete roads, 372 
Condensed milk, 352 
Contests, swine, 309 
Contrasts in farming, 361 
Cooling milk, 350 
Copper sulfate, x 
Coppice growth of trees, 189 
Corn after oats and peas, 96 

as feed, 334 

butts, 137 

chapter on, 133 

clubs, 150, 151, 152 

cob, 135 

composition of, 331 

crop, 133 



INDEX 



XXXI 



Corn culture, 143 

distances for planting, 144 

-drying rack, 147 

ensilage most economical, 149 

fertilizer for, xii 

festival, 153 

finest in the world, 139 

for forage, 96 

for soiling, 100, 101 

germs, weak and healthy, 142 

grain, 135 

harvesting, 140, 147, 148, 149 

importance of, 133 

in rotation, 92, 93 

in United States, 133 

keeping notes, 152 

kernels, 134, 137 

methods of planting, 144 

new standard for, 150, 151 

origin of, 133 

planting, 144 

dates for, 145 

pollination of, 19 

preparation of soil for, 143 

proportion of, to cob, 139 

report blanks, 152 

root system, 146 

rules for selecting and judg- 
ing, 135 

score card, 140 

silks, 19 

silos, 149 

size of ears, 137, 138 

soil and fertilizers, 143 

stalks as feed, 332 

storing, 146, 150 

testing, 140, 141 

tillage, 145 

tips, 130 

types of, 133, 134, 135 

vitality of, 130 
Cornbelt States, 133 
Correlation of subjects, 4 
Cotswolds, 293, 294 
Cotton, chapter on, 117 

cultivation, 124 

diseases, 128 

fertilizers, 123 

fibres, lis, 120 

gin, 120, 127 

harvesting, 124 

importance of, 117 

improvement of, 121 

insects, 128-132 

market grades of, 126 

planting, 123 

problem, 125 

range of, 121 
relatives of, 119 
Sea Island, 119 
selecting, 121 
soil, 122 
types, 119 
upland, 119 
uses, 117 
Cottonseed meal, 336 
Cover crop for orchards, 211 
Cow peas, 92, 99, 104 
mixtures, 105 
Creaming, methods of, 353 



Cream, ripening, 353 

separators, 354 

testing, 359 
Cropping, companion, 96, 196 

double, 96, 195 

succession, 95, 196 

systems of, 88, 89 
Crop, the fruit, 218 
Crops, catch, 90, 91 

classification of, 97 

cover, in orchard, 92 

planting, 362 

rotation of, 88, 89, 194 

soiling, 99 
Cross-bred animals, 261 
Crossing, bad effects of, 361 
Cultivating, effects of, 64, 65 

peach trees, 73 
Cultivation of potatoes, 168 

sweet potatoes, 173 
Cultivators illustrated, 65 
Culture of corn, 143 

orchards, 211,213 
Curculio of plums and peaches, 233, 234 

injuries of, 235 
Currant worms, 224 
Currants, 216, 217 
Cutting seed potatoes, 166 
Cuttings, kinds of, 42, 43 
Cyprian bees, 322 

Dairy breeds, 285, 289 
calves, 285 
farm rotations, 92 
products, 344 
records, 355, 356 
Debates, 209, 297, 320 
Delaine Merinos, 295 
Dent corn, 133, 134 
Depth of planting seed, 193 
Devon cattle, 283 
Digestibility, influence on, 338 

of feeds, xv 
Diseases of man, 229 

plants, chapter on, 246 
Distances for planting fruits, 
406 
trees, 184, 185 
vegetables, xviii 
Division of plants, 42 
Dorset sheep, 294, Figs. 180, 181 
Draft horses, 203, 266 
Drainage, chapter on, 67 
defects of, 64, 68, 69 
for alfalfa, 113, 116 
methods of, 67 
warms the soil, 69 
where needed, 69 
Drains, reasons for, 67 

ventilate the soil, 69 
Drain tiles, 68, 70, 71 
Drift soil, 50, 51 
Drill, gra'n, 156 

Drinking fountains, 315, 319, Fig. 201 
Dry mashes for chickens, 316 
matter shown, 327 
in feeds, xv 
Dual-purpose cattle. 282, 283, 284 

horses, 263 
Durham, see Shorthorn 



XXXI 1 



INDEX 



Duroc-Jersey swine, 300 

Dust boxes for hens, 314 

Mulch, ().5, 66 

Ear-row method, 23 
Earth roads, 373 
Egg breeds, 311 

packing, 318 

problems, 319 

records, 312 

testing, 319 
Eggs, preserving, 319 

weight of, 318 

yolK of, 318 
Electric lights, 400 

motors, 400 

power on farms, 400 
Engine troubles, 399 
English shire horses, 265 
Ensilage, 147, 148, 333 
Essentials in feeds, 328 
Evergreens, how to use, 204, 205 
Exercise, frequent in all chapters, 
see special topics, xix 
referred to, 5 
Experiment stations, list of, iii, 

iv 
Experiment for school gardens, 200, 

201, 202 
Eyes of insects, 220 

Fallow, bare, 90 
Fanning grain, 22 
Farm accounts, 364, 365 

choice in buying, 369 

crops, chapter on, 97, xxi 

equipment, repair of, 383 

forest planting, 181, 182 

getting started on, 368 

going in debt, 369 

management, section on, 360 

mapping the, 362 

need for better managements 
367 

renting plan, 368 

school, plan of, 194 

stepping stone, a, 368 

the value of, 367 
Farmer, a salesman, 365 
Farmers' bulletins, see Bulletins 
Farming, best men needed in, 361 

causes for changes in, 360 

changes in, 360 

contrasts, 361 

results of changes in, 361 

special and general, 88 

system in, 362 
Fat in feeds, 330 
Fats in milk, 345 
Feed, equivalents in quarts, 404 

for pigs, 304, 305 

related to purpose, 338 

succulent, 317 

troughs for poultry, 315 
Feeding beef cattle, 337 

for winter eggs, 316 

of insects, 220 

plants, 83 

principles of, 337 

standards, 339, xvi 



Feeding, systems for poultry, 316, 317 

young animals, 339 
Feeds, analysis of, 330 

and feeding, 327, xxvi 

buying, 342 

change to tissue, 331 

digestibility, table of, xv 

essentials in, 328 

fertility in, xv 

list of, XV 
Fermented milk, 353 
Fertility in feeds, table of, xv 
Fertilizer equivalents, xiv 

formulas, xii, xiv 

in feeds, 342 
Fertilizers, collection of, 80 

commercial, 83-87 

for corn, 143 

for pastures, 109 

for special crops, xii, xiv 

high grade, 85, 86 

low grade, 85, 86 

problems on, 87 

value of, 85 
Fibre crops, 97 
Field records, 365 
Fillers in orchards, 212 
Film moisture in soils, 60, 61 
Fine wooled sheep, 295 
Flax, fibre, 159, 100, 161 

growing, 160 

harvesting, 160 

where grown, 160 
Flies carry disease, 229 

life of, 228, 229 

remedies for, 229, 230 

trap for, 387 
Flight of insects, 220 
Flint corn, 100, 101, 133 
Floats, 84 
Flowers, imperfect, 18 

of strawberry, 18 

parts of, 19 

perfect, 17 

pollination of, 18, 19 

purpose of, 17 
Food value of milk, 345 
Forage crops, 97, 98 

for midsummer, 101 
Forest care and management, 189 

influences, 179, 180, 181 

planting, 178-182 

trees, distances, 184, 186 
mixed plantings, 185 
nurseries, 183 
propagation of, 182 
shade, 183 
Forestry, chapter on, 178, xxiii 
Formalin for grain, 254 

potatoes, 253 
Fountains, drinking, 313, 315 
Free water in soils, 60, 61, 62 
French coach horses, 266, 267 

Merinos, 297 
Frost and rainfall, 197 

vegetables injured by, 193 
Fruit buds, 210,212 

crop, care of, 218 

crops, 98 

fertilizer for, 403 



INDEX 



XXXIU 



Fruit planting, distances for, 
production, chapter on, 

xxiii 
trees, raising of, 35 

Fruits, small, 216 

Full-blood, see Pure-bred 

Fungicides, 258, v 

Gallon measure, xii 
Galloway cattle, 2S1 
Gang plow, 74 
Garden crops, 97 

fertilizer for, 402 

marker, 387 

planning, 191, 192 

plants, setting, 193, 194 
Gardening, chapter on, 191, 

landscape, 202 

ornamental, 202 

school, 198-202 

success in, 191 

vegetable, 191 
Gas engine, carburetor, 395 

compression, 396 

mixtures, 395 

operation, 395 

spark system, 397, 400 

troubles, 399 

valves, 398 

injuries, 399 

starting, 399 
Gate latch, 387 
German coach horses, 267 

black bees, 322 
General-purpose chickens, 312 

horses, 203 
Ginseng, shelter for, 183 
Glaciers as soil formers, 19, 50 
Gluten meal, 335 
Good roads, 371 
Gooseberries, 216, 217 
Grades defined, 260 

high, 261 
Grafting, cleft, 40, 41 

wax, making, 37 
Grain, drill, 156 

heads of, 161 

moth, 230, 231 

remedy for, 231 

samples of, 159 

sifting and fanning, 22 

small, 154 

smut, 253, 254, 255 
Grapes, 216, 217 
Grass seed, good and poor, 25 
Grasses for soiling, 99 
Gravel, 59, 63 
Green crops as manures, 75 

forage crops, 332 

manure, 56 

benefits of, 76 
for potatoes, 164 
planning for, 76 
plowing under, 72 
use of, 76 
Grit boxes, 313 
Ground beetle, 239 
Grub of beetle, 224 
Guard cells, 12 
Guernseys, 286, 287 



xvu 
206, 



Hackney horses, 267 
Halter, rope, 382 
Hampshire sheep, 294 

swine, 302 

Hardy vegetables, 193 
Harrowing, effect of, 64, 65 

pastures, 109 
Harrow, spike-toothes, 66 
Harvesting corn, 145, 146, 147 

grain, 156, 157, 158 

potatoes, 170, 171 

sweet potatoes, 173 
Hawks, 241,242 
Hay as feed, 332 

caps for alfalfa, 114 

fertilizers for, xv 

in rotation, 93 

measure of, xi 
Hayrack lifter, 385 
Hay-stacking machine, 115 
Heading, see Pruniny 
Hedge-row system, 214, 215 
Henry, W. A., credit given, xvi 
Heredity, law of, 259 
Herefords, 280, 281, 289 
Highways in United States, 371 
Hill-row method, 214, 215 
Hives, 323, 325 
Hog cholera, 306 
Holstein-Friesians, 286, 288 
Holstein, pedigree of, x 
Home plot for school garden, 202 
Honey-bees, 239 

poisoning, 256 

-making, 323 
Hoppers for chickens, 315, 316 
Horses, age of, 273 

care of, 271 

chapter on, 262, xxiv 

examining in barn, 271, 272 

feed for, xvi 

inspecting, 271, 272 

judging, 274 

measurements of, 273 

origin of, in America, 262 

points of, shown, 274 

pure breeds of, 263 

types of, 263 

unsoundness of, 273 
Horticultural crops, 97 
Horticulture defined, 191 
Hot-bed, 194, 195, 196, 199 

for sweet potatoes, 172 

plants from, 173 
Houdon chicks. Fig. 197 
House fly, 332, 333 

for chickens, 314, Fig. 198 

for pigs. Fig. 188 
Humus, 55, 58, 59, 03 
Husking and shredding machines, 

147 
Hydraulic ram, 401 
Hydroscopic moisture, 60, 61 

Improvement, kinds of 72 

of animals, 259, xxiv 

of soils, 71, XX 
Impurities of seeds, 2S 
Incubator, running an, 317, 318 
Inoculation of soils, 1 12 



XXXIV 



INDEX 



Inscptioides, 220, 221, 258, v 
Insects, beneficial, 239 

breathing of, 222 

cages for, 22,j, 226 

changes of, 223 

chapter on, 220, xxiv 

enemies, 225 

feeding of, 220 

growth of, 222, 223 

moulting of, 222 

mounting of, 226 

skeleton of, 223 

specimens of, 238 

structure of, 220 
Inventory, an, 366, 367 
Iodine test for starch, 13 
Irrigation of the garden, 192 
Italian bees, 322 

Jersey cattle, 285, 287 
Journal ruling for records, 365 
Judging corn, rules for, 134, 139 

cattle, 291, 292 

horses, 275, 277 

sheep. Fig. 184 

swine, 308, Fig. 187 

Kaffir for soiling, 100, 102 

Keeping farm accounts, 364, 365 

Kernels of corn, 134, 137 

Kerosine emulsion, 222, v, vi 

Kinds of forest trees, 182, 183, 189 

190 
King system of ventilation, 349 

350 

Ladders used in picking fruit, 218 

Lady-beetle, 239, 240 

Lambs, winter or hot-house, 192 

Land drainage, chapter on, 67, xx 

measuring, xi 
Landscape gardening, 202 
Lard tvpe of swine, 299, Fig. 185 
Larva of insects, 221, 223, 224 
Lattice shade for nurseries, 183 
Laws of breeding, 259 

protecting birds, 244 
Layering, tip, mound, vine, 41 
Leaf curl of peach, 248, 250 

skin of, 11 

structure, 10 
Lean type of swine, 299, Fig. 185 
Leaves, chlorophyl in. 11 

moisture from, 10, 11 

of plants, 10 

openings in, 11 

stomates in, 11, 12 
Legal milk. 352 

weights of grain, ix 
Leghorn hen, Fig. 189 
Legumes defined, 192, 103 

gather nitrogen, 103 

learning, 103 
Leicester sheep, 293 
Lens, use of, in examining seeds, 24 
Life, duration of. 20 

of insects, 223 
Light horses. 263, 267, 268 

see Sunlight 
Lime and sour soil, 78 



Lime and scab, 252 

benefits of, 77 

for pastures, 109 
Lime in soil, 55, 58, 59 

slacking, 77 

-sulfur, 247, 250, 256, 258 
forms of, vii, viii 

water, 77 
Liming for alfalfa, 112, 116 
Lincoln sheep, 294 
Linseed meal, 336 
Little-peach diseases 249, 252 
Loam, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 63 
Loose smut of oats, 254 
Loss from feeds, 331 

Macadam roads, 372 
Maggot of fly, 234 
Malaria mosquitoes, 226, 227 
Manure and scab, 235 

care of, 80 

composition of, xviii 

composts, 82 

for pastures, 109 

green, 55, 72, 75, 76 

heating of, 79 

leaching of, 79 

loss in, 79 

spreading, 80, 81, 82 

using, SI 

value of, 78, 79 
Mapping the farm, 362 

school grounds, 36.3 
Market, fruit ready for, 218 

garden crops, 97 

milk, form of, 351, 352 
Marl, 52 
Masses of trees and shrubs, 203, 

204, 205 
Matted row system, 214, 215 
Measure, cubic, and land, xi 

of a pound of feed, xv 
Meat breeds of chickens, 306, 308 
Men needed in farming, 361 
Merino sheep, 295, Fig. 182 
Metamorphosis, see Changes 
Middlings of wheat, 335 
Milk as food, 344 

bacteria in, 347 

bad flavor in, 347 

composition of, 345 

fats in, 345 

minerals in, 346 

pails, 349, 350 

pure, 348 

showing difference in, 346 

sugar in, 346 

varies naturally, 346 
Millets for soiling, 99 
Mill feeds, 335 
Mineral matter, 330 
in milk, 346 
plants, 16 
Mixed planting, reasons for, 185 
Modern agricultural teachings, 368 
Modified milk, 353 
Moisture increasing in soil, 64 
saving in soil, 64, 65 
used by plants, 62 



INDEX 



XXXV 



Morgan horse, 270 
Mosquitoes, 224, 225 

malaria, 226, 227 

yellow fever, 227, 228 
Moth, clothes, 2.30 

grain, 230, 231 
Motortrucks, 391 
Mouldboards, forms of, 74 
Moulting of insects, 222 
Mouth parts of insects, 220 
Movement of moisture, 62 
Mowing pastures, 109, 110 
Muck, 55 
Mulch, effect of, 65 

dust, 65 
Mules, classes of, 268 
Mutations defined, 260 

Native stock, 261 

Nitrate of soda, 84, 86, xii, xiv 

Nitrogen, xii, xiv 

fertilizers, S3 

in feeds, xv 

manures, xvii 
Nodules on legumes, 103, 104 

studying, 113 
Nozzles for spraying, 357 
Nutrients, 332 
Nutritive ratios, 340 
Nymph stage of insects, 225 

Oat smut, treatment, 254, 255 
Oats, 156, 157, 158 

and grain for soiling, 101 
hay, 100 
for peas, 99, 100 
in rotation, 95 

as feed, 335 

fertilizers for, xii 

in rotation, 92, 93 
Oil meal, 336 

presence of, 330 
Olericulture defined, 191 

Ornamental chickens, 311, 312 

gardening, 202, 203 

planting, 188 
Orchard cover crops, 92, 211 

culture, 211, 213 

site and soils, 206, 207 

trees, pruning, 207, 208 
setting, 207 
when to plant, 207 
Osmosis defined, 14 

use of, 14 

with egg, 15 

with potato, 15 
Owls, 342 

Oxford sheep, 294, Fig. 178 
Oxygen in plants, 13, 14 

and air, 16, 17 

Palatability of feed, 341, 342 
Parasites of insects, 240 
Paris green, 258, v 
Pasture, in rotation, 93 

plants, 108 

system, 101 
Pastures, bad conditions in, 109 

how to keep, 109, 110 



Pastures, permanent, 108 
Peach culture, 211 

leaf curl, 248, 250 

scab, 247 

tree borer, 235 

Peach varieties, 212, 213 
yellows, 247, 248, 251 
Peaches injured by curculib, 235 
Pea root nodules, 104 
Peaty soil, 52, 55, 59, 63 
Pedigree, sample, x 
Pedigrees, 261 
Percherons, 264 
Perennial weeds, .30 
Perennials defined, 20 

place for, in garden, 192 
Perfect strawberries, 216 
Permanent pastures, 108 
Phosphate rock, 84 
Phosphoric acid, xii, xiv 

in fertilizers, 84, 85 
in feeds, xv 
• in manures, xvii 
Phosphorus, study of, 85 
Picking and packing fruit, 218 

bag for fruit, 387 
Pig management, 308 
Pipe wrench, 387 
Pistillate strawberries, 216 
Plan for farm school, 104 

school grounds, 198 
Planning crops 362 
Plans for planting shrubs, 204, 205 
Plant diseases, 246, 247 

prevention of, 247 
studying, 247 

food in soils, 15, 58, 59 

improvement, chapter on, 22, 
xix 
Planting corn, 144 

experiment, 144 

distances for fruits, xviii 
vegetables, xviii 

mixed, for trees, 1.S.5 

ornamentals, directions for, 205 

potatoes, 167 

principles of, 203 

time of, 192 

trees, 179, 180, 181 

methods of, 181, 188 

need of, 179, 181 

on the farm, 181 

vegetables, 193 
Plants and moistures, 10, 11 

as soil formers, 4.5, 48 

breathing of, 12 

division of, 42 

feeding of, 83 

flowers of, 8, 17 

for pasture, 108 

get food from air, 12 

leaves of, 8, 10 

mineral matter in, 10, 11, 14 

needs of, 16 

parts of, 8 

per acre for vegetables, xviii 

roots of, 8, 

stems of, 8, 9 

water used by, 62 



XXX VI 



INDEX 



PlowiiiE, depth of, 64, 75 

fall, 74 

for potatoes, 164 

objects of, 72, 73 

with tractors, 391 
Plows, form of, 73, 74 

gang, 74 
Plum curculio, 233, 234 
Plymouth Rock hen, 312,'Fig. 193 
Poison for insects, 394 
Poland China swine, 300, Fig. 185 
Polled Angus, 281 

cattle, origin of, 260 

Durhams, 280 
Pollen, how carried, 18- 
Pollination, cross, 19 

of corn, 19 

self, 19 
Pony breeds, 263 
Pore spaces in soil, 62 
Potash, xii, xiii 

fertilizers, 85 

in feeds, xiv 

manures, x\'i 

muriate of, 85 

sulfate of, 85 
Potato beetle, 231, 232 

diggers, 171 

harvesting, 170, 171 

scab, 252, 253 
Potatoes, chapter on, 162, xxii 

blight, 169, 170 

cultivation of, 168 

diseases, 169, 170 

fertilizer for, 164 

crops, 167 

importance, 160 

insects, 168, 169 

Irish, 162 

origin and types, 162, 163 

planting, 167, 168 

plowing, 164 

score card, 166 

second crop, 167 

seed, 164, 165, 166 

soil, 163 

spraying, 169 

treatment for scab, 255 

varieties, 165, 166, 168 

weights and yields, 171 
Poultry, care of, 317 

chapter on, 311, xxv 

projects, 320 

rations, 315, 316 
Powdered milk, 352 
Power animal, 401 

electric, 400 

on the farm, 391 

water, 400 

wind, 401 
Principles of planting, 203 

of spraying, 257, 258 
Problems, 7, 16, 307, 319 

arithmetical, 4 

feeds, 342 

fertilizers, 87 

on eggs, 320 
Products of cattle, listed, 344 
Projects, xix, 297, 308, 320 

the dairy, 344 



Propagation of forest trees, 182, 
183, 1S4 
plants, 35, xx 
Property, value of, 366 
Protein, 328 

in feeds, xvi 
Pruning a budded tree, 38 

annual, 208 
Pruning, care in, 210 

choice in, 209 

currants and gosseberries, 217 

grapes, 217 

high and low, 208 

illustrated, 208-211 

instruments, 210, 212 

methods of, 209, 210 

practice in, 210 

principles of, 207 

raspberries and blackberries, 
217 
Pruning small fruits, 216 

time for, 210 

young trees, 208 
Pupa stage, 223 
Pure-bred animals, 260 

milk, difficulty in obtaining, 347 
how to get, 348 
Purity of corn, 136 

Quantity of seeds for crops, ix 
Questions, review, see end of each 
chapter 

Rag doll corn tester, 142 
Rainfall, absorbing, 63 

and frost, 197 
Rambouillet sheep, 297 
Raspberries, 216, 217 
Rations balanced, 340 
Records for dairy cows, 355, 356 

of fields, 365 
Red polled cattle, 283, 284 
Reference books, i 

tables, appendix, i 

to books, 60 
References to bulletins, see Bulh' 

tins 
Remedies for codling-moth, 233 

curculio, 234 

flies, 229 

grain moth, 231 

mosquitoes, 227 

potato scab, 252, 253 

scale, 238 
Reversion defined, 260 
Review questions, see end of each 

chapter 
Rings of wood, 187 
Ripened milk and cream, 353 
Roads, concrete, 372 

construction of, 373, xxvii 

drainage of, 374 

drag for, 373 

earth, 373 

grade of, 373 

gravel, 372 

importance of, 371 

kinds of, 372 

maintenance, 373 

mechanics, 371 



INDEX 



xxxvii 



Roads, reasons for, 372 
Robin arithmetic, 242 
Roof garden, 201 
Root crops, 97, 333 

for dairy cows, 100 

grafting, 30, 37 

hairs, S, 9 

system of corn, 140 
Roots, effects of drainage on, 68 

for chickens, 213 

of plants, 8 
Rope, halter, 382 

hitches, 378, 379 

how made, 376 

knots, 376, 377, 378 

splices, long, 381 
short, 380 
Rotation courses, 94 

of crops, benefit of, 90 
need of, 90 

reasons for, 88 

for dairy farms, 92 
Rotations, a few, 92 
quick, 93 
Roughage, 332 
Rows of kernels on corn, 139 
Rules for alfalfa growing, 131, 132 

corn judging, 134, 139 

farmers, xi 
Rust of apple, 205, 251 
Rye, 158, 159 

Saddle horse, 268, 270 
Salesman, the farmer a, 365 
Sampling milk to test, 357 
Sandy soil, 52, 54, 59, 63 
San Jose scale 237, 238 
Scab of apples, 249, 250 

potato, 252, 253 
Scale, San Jose, 237, 238 
Schedule for placing agriculture, 4 
School gardening, 19S, 202 
equipment, 199 
experiments, 200, 201 
in California, 192 
place for, 199 
plots, 198, 202 
products of, 202 
suggestions for, 199, 200 
grounds described, 204 
mapping of, 363 
needs of, 204 
plans for, 198 
Scions for apples, 35, 37 

peaches and plums, 39 
Score card for cattle, 291, 292 
corn, 140 
horse, 275, 277 
Scrub, see Native IStock 
Seed analysis, 25 
cheap, 27 

collection, 27 
corn, harvesting, 145 
storing, 145, 147 
depth of planting, 193 
for crops, quantity, 367 
good, chapter on, 22 
immature, 27 

impurities, examining for, 28 
potatoes, cutting, 166 



Seed treating, 253 

samples of, 30 

selection, 22, 23 

testing, 25 

what to buy, 27 

wheat, 156 
Seeding alfalfa, 112. 116 

oats, 157 

pastures, 109 
Seeds, forest tree, 182, 183, 184 

mounted, 29 

purpose of, 20 

structure of, 20 

study of, 20 
.Selecting corn, rules for, 134, 139 
Separators, hand, 354 
Shallow tillage, 75 
Sheep, care of, 295 

chapter on, 293, xxv 

feed for, 406 

projects, 297 

to kill weeds, 110 

types of. 293 
.Shelter belts, 180, 181, 182, 185 
Shire, English. 265 
Shorthorns, 279, 280 
.Shorts, 335 

Shropshire, 294, Fig. 179 
Shrubs, masses of, 203 
Sifting, grain, 22 
Silage, see Ensilage 
.Silk worm, 239 
.Silo, capacity of, 149 

filling, 148, 334 

masonary. 149 

metal, 149 

stave, 149 

underground, 149 
Silt, 52 ^ 

.Site for 'orchards, 206 
Skim milk, 356, 359 
Slips, see Cuttings 
Small fruits, to grow, 207 

grains, chapter of, 154, xx 
Soil, agencies in forming, 45 

and fertilizers of. 154 

builders, 45 

clayey, 52, 53, 54, 59, 63 

defineci, 44 

farm, 58 

for barley, 158 

improvement, chapter on, 

XX 

kinds of, chapter on, 52, xx 
loamy, see L<xim 
moisture, chapter on, 60. xx 
names of, 59 
oats, 157 
packing of. 62 
perfect, 58 
plant-food form, 15 
potatoes, 163 
preparation for corn, 143 
rocky, 53 
sampling, 59, 60 
sandy, 52, 54, .59. 63 
texture of, 57 
transported, 50, 51 
warmed by drainage, 69 
wind-blown, 45, 51 



XXXV 111 



INDEX 



Soiling crops, 98, 90, 333 

entire, 98 

for the dairy, 98 

partial, 98, 101 

sj^stem, 98 
Soils, characteristics, chapter on, 
52 

how formed, chapter on, 44 

inoculation of, 112 

water-holding power, 62, G3 

in, 60, 63 
Soluble oil, 238 

Sorting and grading fruit, 218, 219 
Souring of milk, 351, 353 
Southdown sheep, 294, Fig. 177 
Soy beans, 92, 99, 104 
Spark system, 397 
Specimens, preserving, 238, 239 
Sphinx caterpillar, 241 
Sports defined, 200 
Spray mixtures, v 

time to, 249, 255, 256, 257 
Spraying, 246, 250, 255, 258 

orchards, 255, 257 

principles, 257 
Standardized milk, 352 
Standards of feeding, 339, 362 
Starch, 329 

in plants, 13 
State experiment stations, iii 
Stems of plants, 9 

relation of light, 10 
sap in, 10 
Steps in churning, .354 

cheese-making, 355 
Stock feeding, 337 
Stocks for apples, 35 

peaches, 38, 39 
Stomates, 11, 12 
Storage of sweet potatoes, 173 
Stored grain, treatment of, 231 
Storing corn, 147, 151, 152 

vegetables, 196 
Stover corn, 147, 152 
Stratifying peach seeds, 39 
Straw as feed, 332 
Strawberries, 214, 215, 216 

flowers of, 216 

methods of planting, 214 

varieties of, 216 
Structure and physiology of plants 

chapter on, 8 
Subjects in school, 4, 5 
Subsoil and plow, 58 
Success, elements of, 363 

in gardening, 191 
Succulent feed, 316 
Sucking insects, 220, 221 

sprays for, v 
Suffolk Punch, 266 
Sugar in milk, 346 

plants, 13 
Sugars, 329, 330 
Suggestions to teachers, 2, xix 
Sunlight aids plants, 12, 13 
Super for hives, 325 
Superphosphate, 85, 87 
Surveys, swine, 308 
Swarming of bees, 325 
Sweeps, 402 



Sweet corn, 100, 101, 102 
potatoes, 171, 172, 173 
cultivation, 173 
fertilizer for, xiii 
harvesting, 173 
hot-bed, 173 
soil for, 171 
storage, 173 
.Swine, chapter on, 298, xxv 
contests and debates, 309 
feed for, xvi 
Swine, four stages in life of, 305 
mineral for, 304 
types of, 299 
Syrian bees, 322 
System in farming, 362 
.Systems, cropping, 88, xxi 

Tables, consult Appendix, '. 

Tachinid fly, 229 

Tamworth swine, 300, Fig. 186 

Tankage, .S4 

Teachers, suggestions to, 2 

Temperature and souring, 350, 351 

in soil farming, 45, 46 
Temperatures, 16 
Tender vegetables, 193 
Tester for ear method, 141 
Testing milk and cream, 355, 359 

results, 142 

seed corn, 140 
Thinning plants, lessons in, 201 
Thorax of insects, 220 
Thoroughbred, 260, 267, 269 
Three-horse eveners, 385 
Tillage, 72, 75 

of corn, 145 
Timber crops, 98 
Time to prune, 210 
Tips of corn, 136 
Toads destroy insects, 240 
Tobacco, care of, 176, xxiii 

curing, 177 

harvesting, 176 

nicotine in, 175 

seeding, 176 

soil for, 175 

sorting, 177 

transplanting, 176 

types, 175 

varieties, 177 

where grown, 175 
Tomatoes, fertilizer for, xiii 
Tongue graft, 36 
Tractors, for belt machine, 394 

for implements, 392, 394, 396 

plowing with, 391 

sizes of, 392 
Tread mills, 402 

Treatment of seed potatoes, 253 
Tree planting, 179, 188 

Arbor Day, ISS 

seeds, 182, 183, 1S4 
Trees and water supply, ISO, 181 

kinds of, 182, 190 

raising of, 35 

shape of, 180 

top-working. 40 
Tripe, swine, 308 
Trotter, American, 2()S, 269 



INDEX 



XXXIX 



Tuber crops, 97 
Type of corn, 135 
Types of cattle, 279 

horses, 263 

wheat, lo4, 155 
Typhoid flies, 229 

Underdrainage, effects of, 64 

principles of, (59 
Unsoundness in horses, 273 

Value of manures, xvii 

poultry, 311 

the farm, 3G7 
Variation among animals, 260 

in milk, causes of, 346 

laws of, 200 
Varieties of chickens, 306, 309 

fruit, 316, 317 
Vegetable gardening, 191, 197 

matter in soil, 55 
Vegetables, hardy and- tender, 

planting distances for, xviii 
Ventilation by drainage, 69 

of barns, 349, 350 
Vetch, 99 
Vines on buildings, 204 

vitality of seed corn, 136 

Wagon jack, 387 
Wasp with cica da, 241 
Water, capillary, 60-64 

free in soils, 60, 61 

in flesh, 327 

plants, 14 

soils, 00, 63 
Water in soil formation, 46, 47, 48 

influenced by trees, 180, 181 
Wax for grafting, 37 
Waxing cotton for grafting, 37 
Weathering of rocks, 46 



Weed nuisance, 27 

seeds, identifying, 25 

sprouting, 112, 116 
Weeds classified, 28, 32, xix 

collecting, 38 

common, table of, 33 

defined, 2S 
Weeds, fighting perennial, 31 

persistent, 30 

preventing, 75 

spraying, 31 
Weevils, treatment for, vi 
Weights of seeds, ix 
Wet mashes for chickens, 316 
Wheat, 154, 155, 156 

fertilizer for, xii 

good and poor, 23 

harvesting, 156 

heavy seed, 156 

in rotation, 92, 93 

planting, 155 

soil for, 155 

types of, 154, 155 
Whip grafting, 36 
Wind-breaks, 180, 181, 182 

for poultry, 311 
Windmills, 401 
Wings of insects, 314 
Wood lot, 179, 181, 189 

mounted samples, 187 

rings of, 187 
Wool, samples of, 296 

yolk of, 295 
Wrigglers of mosquitoes, 224, 226 

227 
Wyandotte hen. Fig. 194 

Yellow fever mosquitoes, 227, 228 
Yellows of peach, 247, 248, 251 
Yorkshire, large, 300 
Young animals, feeding, 339 



IP 
i ill 



11 



'11 



wm 



JjJ BRARY OF CONGRESS 



